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通胀会让你受益?只要你是中产阶级或排名前1%的富豪

通胀会让你受益?只要你是中产阶级或排名前1%的富豪

WILL DANIEL 2023-10-29
一项新的研究推翻了通胀有害无利的普遍观点。

2023年8月,伊利诺伊州一家超市出售的商品。图片来源:SCOTT OLSON—GETTY IMAGES

在著名经济学家米尔顿·弗里德曼(Milton Friedman)的整个职业生涯中,他将通胀形容为一种“隐形税负”。他警告称,当物价持续上涨时,就会削弱消费者的购买力,迫使他们要赚更多的钱(和缴纳更多的税款)来维持同样的生活方式。最重要的是,在高通胀时期,名义工资和收入的增加最终可能会将一群不幸的消费者和企业推到更高的纳税等级(尽管他们的购买力下降了),这种效应被称为“税级攀升”。

弗里德曼在1974年的一篇文章中有两句著名的话:“通货膨胀是一种未经代表同意的税收形式。这种税的征收既不需要当局立法,也不用雇用额外的税务员。”该文章呼吁政府将纳税等级与通货膨胀挂钩,以免出现“税级攀升”效应。

通胀这种所谓的提高所得税的特征使其受到公众的抵触。里士满联储行长托马斯·巴尔金(Tom Barkin)最近在接受美国有线电视新闻网(CNN)采访时解释道:

他说:“我从每个人那里清楚明白地听到一件事,那就是他们讨厌通胀。他们认为通胀很不公平。虽然你加薪了,但转头就得把涨的薪水花在汽车加油站。坦诚地说,这令人筋疲力尽。”

不过现在,一项新的研究推翻了通胀有害无利的普遍观点。在一篇题为《通货膨胀税真的存在吗?》的新论文中,纽约大学(New York University)的经济学家爱德华·内森·沃尔夫(Edward Nathan Wolff)——拥有近40年的研究不平等问题的经验——分析了1983年至2019年间通货膨胀对美国人整体财富的影响。

他得出了什么结论?“通货膨胀税”确实存在,但征收对象并不是所有人。实际上,美国的中产阶级和前1%的富豪就从近几十年的高通胀得益了。沃尔夫写道:“关于是否真的存在净通货膨胀税的问题,答案是:仅存在于某些群体中。”

一种不平等的“税收”

本月,在测定商业周期的权威机构美国国家经济研究局(National Bureau of Economic Research)发表的一篇论文中,沃尔夫仔细研究了消费者价格指数和美联储(Federal Reserve)《消费者金融调查》(Survey of Consumer Finances)的数据,以衡量持续通胀期间消费者的收入和整体财富的变化。

这位经济学家——《经济不平等杂志》(Journal of Economic Inequality)和《收入与财富评论》(Review of Income and Wealth)编委会的成员——发现,虽然消费者肯定要就收入缴纳“通货膨胀税”(以名义收入增长值与实际收入增长值之差来衡量),但通胀还有更加积极的一面。(沃尔夫关于不平等的著作包括2015年出版的《在美国继承财富:未来是繁荣还是萧条?》(Inheriting Wealth in America: Future Boom or Bust?)和2017年出版的《美国财富世纪》(A Century of Wealth in America))

通货膨胀可能会导致资产价格(特别是房地产价格)大幅上涨,但同时也会缓解一些消费者的实际债务负担。沃尔夫解释道,这意味着从历史上看,资产或债务远远多于收入的幸运家庭(如近期刚刚购房的“房奴”或超级富豪)会因通货膨胀而增加一笔可观的财富。

他写道:“就家庭福利而言,通货膨胀对中产阶级来说完全是一个福音。财富水平前1%的家庭也从通货膨胀中获得了颇丰的收益。另一方面,贫困家庭(财富水平处于底层五分之一的家庭)则深受通货膨胀的打击。”

通过求通货膨胀侵蚀的收入和带来的财富之间的差值,沃尔夫计算出了美国各个收入阶层的“净通货膨胀收益”。

最富有的1%美国家庭获得了6.35万美元的“丰厚”的净通货膨胀收益,相当于他们在1983年至2019年间平均年收入的6.9%。然而,对于那些只是很富有但财富排名未跻进前1%的家庭来说,情况就不一样了。

那些财富水平位于95至99分位之间的美国家庭的财富收入比率远远更低,导致他们的净通货膨胀收益为亏损5.62万美元,相当于他们在1983年至2019年间平均年收入的18%。80至95分位的家庭的净通货膨胀收益同样为负值。

然而,中上阶层家庭的情况正好相反。财富水平位于60至80分位的美国家庭——在今天,也就是净资产约为20万至55万美元的家庭——往往将很大一部分资金投资于房地产。因此,通货膨胀给这一群体带来了1.27万美元的净通货膨胀收益,相当于他们在1983年至2019年间平均年收入的16%。说到底,通货膨胀侵蚀了那些消费者需要偿还的房贷,并使其资产膨胀,让他们可以弥补因购买其他涨价商品和服务而遭受的收入损失,而且还绰绰有余。

对于真正的中产阶级家庭,即财富水平位于40至60分位的美国家庭,通货膨胀带来的财富更多。这一群体的净通货膨胀收益达近4万美元,相当于其年收入的三分之二。沃尔夫在谈到这些发现时写道:“事实上,从资产负债的角度看,通货膨胀是有利于中产阶级的。”

然而,对于财富水平处于底层五分之二的人来说,通胀仍然是一场噩梦。沃尔夫发现,该群体的净通货膨胀收益为亏损1.93万美元,几乎等于他们平均收入的一半。他写道:“显然,通货膨胀对贫困家庭的打击极其严重。”

沃尔夫说,他的发现引出了一个亟需解答的问题:“为何公众(尤其是中产阶级)如此反对通货膨胀?”

他的回答是,消费者往往能感知到通胀侵蚀收入对其造成的心理影响,却“意识不到”通胀对其资产和债务的积极影响。消费者很容易发现杂货店或在加油站里物价的上涨,但对他们中的许多人来说,通胀导致抵押贷款的实际总成本降低,从而带来积极的财富效应,这就不那么显眼了。

不过,过去的几十年里,大衰退、新冠疫情和互联网泡沫将更多的美国人挤出了中产阶级——至少从收入上看。皮尤研究中心(Pew Research Center)的一项分析显示,1971年至2021年间,“中等收入”美国人口比例从61%降至50%。中产阶级空心化的部分原因在于“高收入”人口增加了7个百分点,但低收入人口也增加了5个百分点——许多人将这一结果归咎于通货膨胀。沃尔夫没有提到的一点是,通货膨胀之所以非常不受欢迎,是因为隐形税负如今给更多的美国人造成了冲击——毕竟无法进入中产阶级的人口增加了。

美联储应该设定更高的通胀目标吗?

总体而言,沃尔夫的研究结果表明,偏低的通货膨胀率可以保护较贫穷的家庭,但也会伤害到中产阶级的利益,进而(出人意料地)加剧整体贫富差距。这对联邦政策有一定的启示意义,而且由此可见,相较维持2%的长期通胀目标,美联储更应该将通胀目标设定得略高一些。当然,更高的通胀率也有其对较贫穷家庭不利的因素。

为了对抗通胀对穷人的负面影响,沃尔夫提出了一个有趣的解决方案:实施通胀税收抵免政策。他认为,美国国税局(IRS)应该计算前一年的通货膨胀率,然后根据该比率来“修改税法”,并且向受物价上涨冲击最大的群体提供补贴。

他写道:“对各个收入水平的人群实施不同的税收抵免政策,既可以减轻通胀给贫困家庭带来的负担,又能让中等收入家庭继续从通胀中获益。”(财富中文网)

译者:中慧言-刘嘉欢

在著名经济学家米尔顿·弗里德曼(Milton Friedman)的整个职业生涯中,他将通胀形容为一种“隐形税负”。他警告称,当物价持续上涨时,就会削弱消费者的购买力,迫使他们要赚更多的钱(和缴纳更多的税款)来维持同样的生活方式。最重要的是,在高通胀时期,名义工资和收入的增加最终可能会将一群不幸的消费者和企业推到更高的纳税等级(尽管他们的购买力下降了),这种效应被称为“税级攀升”。

弗里德曼在1974年的一篇文章中有两句著名的话:“通货膨胀是一种未经代表同意的税收形式。这种税的征收既不需要当局立法,也不用雇用额外的税务员。”该文章呼吁政府将纳税等级与通货膨胀挂钩,以免出现“税级攀升”效应。

通胀这种所谓的提高所得税的特征使其受到公众的抵触。里士满联储行长托马斯·巴尔金(Tom Barkin)最近在接受美国有线电视新闻网(CNN)采访时解释道:

他说:“我从每个人那里清楚明白地听到一件事,那就是他们讨厌通胀。他们认为通胀很不公平。虽然你加薪了,但转头就得把涨的薪水花在汽车加油站。坦诚地说,这令人筋疲力尽。”

不过现在,一项新的研究推翻了通胀有害无利的普遍观点。在一篇题为《通货膨胀税真的存在吗?》的新论文中,纽约大学(New York University)的经济学家爱德华·内森·沃尔夫(Edward Nathan Wolff)——拥有近40年的研究不平等问题的经验——分析了1983年至2019年间通货膨胀对美国人整体财富的影响。

他得出了什么结论?“通货膨胀税”确实存在,但征收对象并不是所有人。实际上,美国的中产阶级和前1%的富豪就从近几十年的高通胀得益了。沃尔夫写道:“关于是否真的存在净通货膨胀税的问题,答案是:仅存在于某些群体中。”

一种不平等的“税收”

本月,在测定商业周期的权威机构美国国家经济研究局(National Bureau of Economic Research)发表的一篇论文中,沃尔夫仔细研究了消费者价格指数和美联储(Federal Reserve)《消费者金融调查》(Survey of Consumer Finances)的数据,以衡量持续通胀期间消费者的收入和整体财富的变化。

这位经济学家——《经济不平等杂志》(Journal of Economic Inequality)和《收入与财富评论》(Review of Income and Wealth)编委会的成员——发现,虽然消费者肯定要就收入缴纳“通货膨胀税”(以名义收入增长值与实际收入增长值之差来衡量),但通胀还有更加积极的一面。(沃尔夫关于不平等的著作包括2015年出版的《在美国继承财富:未来是繁荣还是萧条?》(Inheriting Wealth in America: Future Boom or Bust?)和2017年出版的《美国财富世纪》(A Century of Wealth in America))

通货膨胀可能会导致资产价格(特别是房地产价格)大幅上涨,但同时也会缓解一些消费者的实际债务负担。沃尔夫解释道,这意味着从历史上看,资产或债务远远多于收入的幸运家庭(如近期刚刚购房的“房奴”或超级富豪)会因通货膨胀而增加一笔可观的财富。

他写道:“就家庭福利而言,通货膨胀对中产阶级来说完全是一个福音。财富水平前1%的家庭也从通货膨胀中获得了颇丰的收益。另一方面,贫困家庭(财富水平处于底层五分之一的家庭)则深受通货膨胀的打击。”

通过求通货膨胀侵蚀的收入和带来的财富之间的差值,沃尔夫计算出了美国各个收入阶层的“净通货膨胀收益”。

最富有的1%美国家庭获得了6.35万美元的“丰厚”的净通货膨胀收益,相当于他们在1983年至2019年间平均年收入的6.9%。然而,对于那些只是很富有但财富排名未跻进前1%的家庭来说,情况就不一样了。

那些财富水平位于95至99分位之间的美国家庭的财富收入比率远远更低,导致他们的净通货膨胀收益为亏损5.62万美元,相当于他们在1983年至2019年间平均年收入的18%。80至95分位的家庭的净通货膨胀收益同样为负值。

然而,中上阶层家庭的情况正好相反。财富水平位于60至80分位的美国家庭——在今天,也就是净资产约为20万至55万美元的家庭——往往将很大一部分资金投资于房地产。因此,通货膨胀给这一群体带来了1.27万美元的净通货膨胀收益,相当于他们在1983年至2019年间平均年收入的16%。说到底,通货膨胀侵蚀了那些消费者需要偿还的房贷,并使其资产膨胀,让他们可以弥补因购买其他涨价商品和服务而遭受的收入损失,而且还绰绰有余。

对于真正的中产阶级家庭,即财富水平位于40至60分位的美国家庭,通货膨胀带来的财富更多。这一群体的净通货膨胀收益达近4万美元,相当于其年收入的三分之二。沃尔夫在谈到这些发现时写道:“事实上,从资产负债的角度看,通货膨胀是有利于中产阶级的。”

然而,对于财富水平处于底层五分之二的人来说,通胀仍然是一场噩梦。沃尔夫发现,该群体的净通货膨胀收益为亏损1.93万美元,几乎等于他们平均收入的一半。他写道:“显然,通货膨胀对贫困家庭的打击极其严重。”

沃尔夫说,他的发现引出了一个亟需解答的问题:“为何公众(尤其是中产阶级)如此反对通货膨胀?”

他的回答是,消费者往往能感知到通胀侵蚀收入对其造成的心理影响,却“意识不到”通胀对其资产和债务的积极影响。消费者很容易发现杂货店或在加油站里物价的上涨,但对他们中的许多人来说,通胀导致抵押贷款的实际总成本降低,从而带来积极的财富效应,这就不那么显眼了。

不过,过去的几十年里,大衰退、新冠疫情和互联网泡沫将更多的美国人挤出了中产阶级——至少从收入上看。皮尤研究中心(Pew Research Center)的一项分析显示,1971年至2021年间,“中等收入”美国人口比例从61%降至50%。中产阶级空心化的部分原因在于“高收入”人口增加了7个百分点,但低收入人口也增加了5个百分点——许多人将这一结果归咎于通货膨胀。沃尔夫没有提到的一点是,通货膨胀之所以非常不受欢迎,是因为隐形税负如今给更多的美国人造成了冲击——毕竟无法进入中产阶级的人口增加了。

美联储应该设定更高的通胀目标吗?

总体而言,沃尔夫的研究结果表明,偏低的通货膨胀率可以保护较贫穷的家庭,但也会伤害到中产阶级的利益,进而(出人意料地)加剧整体贫富差距。这对联邦政策有一定的启示意义,而且由此可见,相较维持2%的长期通胀目标,美联储更应该将通胀目标设定得略高一些。当然,更高的通胀率也有其对较贫穷家庭不利的因素。

为了对抗通胀对穷人的负面影响,沃尔夫提出了一个有趣的解决方案:实施通胀税收抵免政策。他认为,美国国税局(IRS)应该计算前一年的通货膨胀率,然后根据该比率来“修改税法”,并且向受物价上涨冲击最大的群体提供补贴。

他写道:“对各个收入水平的人群实施不同的税收抵免政策,既可以减轻通胀给贫困家庭带来的负担,又能让中等收入家庭继续从通胀中获益。”(财富中文网)

译者:中慧言-刘嘉欢

Throughout his career, famed economist Milton Friedman described inflation as a “hidden tax.” When prices rise consistently, he warned, they cut into consumers’ purchasing power, forcing them to earn more money (and pay more in taxes) to maintain the same lifestyle. On top of that, nominal wage and revenue increases during periods of high inflation can end up pushing an unlucky group of consumers and businesses into higher tax brackets even as their purchasing power falls—an effect called “bracket creep.”

“Inflation is a form of taxation without representation. It is the kind of tax that can be imposed without being legislated by the authorities and without having to employ additional tax collectors,” Friedman famously wrote in a 1974 article that called for the indexing of tax brackets in order to prevent “bracket creep.”

This so-called income-tax feature of inflation has made it incredibly unpopular among the public. As Tom Barkin, president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, explained in a recent interview with CNN:

“The one thing that I hear loud and clear from everybody is that they hate inflation. They find inflation to be unfair. You get a raise, and then you have to spend that raise at the gas station,” he said. “It’s frankly exhausting.”

But now, new research has added a wrinkle to the popular view of inflation as nothing but a downer. In a new working paper whose title asks, “Is There Really an Inflation Tax?” New York University economist Edward Nathan Wolff, an expert on inequality with nearly 40 years of research to his name, breaks down the effects of inflation on Americans’ overall wealth between 1983 and 2019.

His answer? The “inflation tax” does exist, but not for everybody. The middle class and the top 1% of Americans actually benefited from periods of high inflation in recent decades. “With regard to the issue of whether there is really a net inflation tax, the answer is that it is true for some groups only,” Wolff wrote.

A ‘tax’ that hits unequally

In his paper, which was published this month by the National Bureau of Economic Research, the official arbiter of business cycles, Wolff pored over data from the consumer price index and Federal Reserve’s Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF) to measure changes in consumers’ incomes and overall wealth during periods of sustained inflation.

The economist, who serves on the editorial board of the Journal of Economic Inequality and the Review of Income and Wealth, found that although there is definitely an “inflation tax” on consumers’ incomes—measured as the difference between nominal and real income growth—there’s another, more positive side to inflation as well. (Wolff’s books on inequality include 2015’s Inheriting Wealth in America: Future Boom or Bust? and 2017’s A Century of Wealth in America.)

Inflation can cause asset prices, particularly in real estate, to rise substantially, while simultaneously lowering the real debt burdens of some consumers. This means that a lucky group of households that have a large amount of assets or debt relative to their incomes—say, recent homebuyers who are “house poor” or the ultrarich—have historically seen a sizable gain in household wealth thanks to inflation, Wolff explained.

“In terms of household well-being, inflation is a net boon to the middle class. The top 1% of the wealth distribution also gains handsomely from inflation. On the other hand, poor households (the bottom two quintiles in terms of wealth) get clobbered by inflation,” he wrote.

Comparing the difference between inflation’s erosion of incomes and its boost to wealth, Wolff calculated the “net inflation gain” or NIG for each income bracket in the U.S.

The top 1% of Americans saw a “robust” NIG of $63,500, or 6.9% of their mean annual income between 1983 and 2019. However, for those who were merely very wealthy, but below the 1%, it was a different story.

Those in the 95th to 99th percentile of wealth have a much lower wealth-to-income ratio, which caused their NIG to come in at -$56,200, or 18% of their mean income. NIG was also negative for Americans in the 80th to 95th percentile of wealth.

The equation flips for the upper middle class, however. Americans in the 60th to 80th wealth percentile—today, that means a household net worth of roughly $200,000 to $550,000—tend to have a high portion of their wealth in real estate. As a result, for this group, inflation led to a NIG of $12,700, or 16% of their mean yearly income between 1983 and 2019. Essentially, inflation eroded these consumers’ mortgage payments and inflated their assets more than enough to make up for the losses their income took from having to pay more for other goods and services.

The boost was even bigger for squarely middle-class households, or those in the 40th to 60th wealth percentile. This group saw an NIG of nearly $40,000, or two-thirds of their annual income. “Indeed, inflation has been a boon to the middle class in terms of its balance sheet,” Wolff wrote of the findings.

For the bottom two quintiles of the wealth distribution, however, inflation remains a nightmare. Wolff found that this group’s NIG was -$19,300, or almost half of their mean income. “It is clear that poor households were particularly hard hit by inflation,” he wrote.

Wolff said his findings pose an urgent question: “Why is the public, particularly the middle class, so opposed to inflation?”

His answer was that consumers tend to feel the psychological effects caused by inflation eroding their incomes, but they are often “not aware” of the commonly positive effects that it can have on their assets and debt. It’s easy to see rising prices at the grocery store or while filling up at the gas station, but for many consumers, the positive wealth effect that comes from inflation lowering the lifetime real cost of a mortgage is less obvious.

However, the Great Recession, the pandemic, and the dotcom bubble all helped push more Americans out of the middle class, at least in terms of income, over the past decades. Between 1971 and 2021, the number of “middle income” Americans fell from 61% to 50%, according to a Pew Research Center analysis. Part of the reason for this hollowing out of the middle class was a seven-percentage-point increase in the “upper income” category, but the amount of lower income Americans also grew by five percentage points—and many have blamed inflation for that outcome. A point that Wolff doesn’t touch on is that inflation is massively unpopular because the hidden tax is affecting more Americans who are missing out on entry into the middle class.

Should the Fed be aiming at a higher inflation target?

Overall, Wolff’s findings suggest that lower rates of inflation would protect poorer families, but also hurt the middle class, thereby (ironically) raising overall wealth inequality. This has implications for federal policy, and suggests, rather than the Federal Reserve’s longtime target of 2% inflation, it could make sense to have a slightly higher overall inflation target. Of course, that higher rate comes with its own issues for the poorest Americans.

To combat the negative effect of inflation on the poor, Wolff proposed an interesting solution: an inflation tax credit. He argued that the IRS should calculate the rate of inflation in the preceding year and then use that figure to “modify the tax code” and offer incentives to those most affected by rising prices.

“Varying this tax credit across the income distribution could reduce the burden of inflation for poor families while still allowing middle-income families to capture its benefits,” he wrote.

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