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如果弗里德曼和哈耶克还活着,他们会怎样看待比特币?

如果弗里德曼和哈耶克还活着,他们会怎样看待比特币?

Shawn Tully 2021-08-14
弗里德曼并不反对竞争性货币挑战法币。但他认为哈耶克错了。

这是两位20世纪货币经济学巨人之间的一场传奇性的辩论。争论的焦点是,是否会有一种“挑战者货币”能够取代政府发行的法币,成为全球范围的一种新的支付媒介。虽然对他们来说,比特币(Bitcoin)是一种几十年后的产物,但两位大师如果仍然健在,他们会如何看待比特币,会不会认为它有能力挑战法币呢?

首先上场的是奥地利裔英籍经济学家、古典自由主义大师弗里德里希•哈耶克,他的对手是倡导自由市场的米尔顿•弗里德曼。哈耶克与弗里德曼在很多问题上的看法都是相似的,不过二者争论的焦点是,如果出现了一种私人发行的竞争性货币,它是否有可能构建一个更加稳定的货币系统。20世纪70年代中后期,受阿拉伯石油禁运的影响,美国的汽油、机票乃至家庭采暖价格都出现了飞涨,美元体系进入了二战后最危险的时期。为了应对这种冲击,美联储向市场大量放水,削弱了几乎所有人的购买力。美国的消费价格指数一向是以比较平稳的速度上涨的,在这一阶段的增长率却达到了14%。

哈耶克于1950年到1962年间在芝加哥大学任教,他与弗里德曼在那里共事了很多年,这两位经济学家对彼此都很了解,但二人并未发生过面对面的争论。哈耶克将他的观点写进了20世纪70年代中后期的一系列演讲和论文里,并于1976年出版了《货币的非国家化》(The Denationalization of Money)一书。在20世纪七八十年代,二人的观点尚未对立。不过从20世纪80年代开始,弗里德曼在与经济学家安娜•施瓦茨合著的书中,首次对哈耶克的观点进行了公开批判。

在当时,美国的政治家、学者和普通民众都担心美元体系将走向崩溃。而美联储则采取了与以往的“稳健货币”政策截然相反的政策,美元贬值的速度甚至超过了美国工人赚取美元的速度。哈耶克认为,在经济困难时期,各国央行会通过超发货币,迅速将经济人为地推到一个高点,这样就会出现美国当时正在经历的那种通胀。哈耶克认为,对于这种情况,解决方案是让银行或者其他公司发行私人货币,在公开市场上与主权货币进行竞争。哪一种或几种私人货币最能够保持住消费者的稳定购买力,哪一种就可以成功地吸引最多的用户。

如果美联储继续大量超发货币,导致美元的购买力越来越弱,私营货币就将取代美元的地位。这种“让最好的货币获胜”的理念将终止政府这种不计后果的货币政策,央行要么会被迫改革,要么就会出台新的、更稳定的货币政策。

弗里德曼(左)与哈耶克,20世纪最著名的两位经济学家。图片来源:Bettmann/Getty Images; Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS/Getty Images

弗里德曼并不反对竞争性货币挑战法币。但他认为哈耶克错了,“挑战者货币”注定是要失败的。在弗里德曼看来,人们和企业确实关心购买力的问题,但他们更重视自己和邻居、和贸易伙伴是不是使用同一种货币。他表示,消费者和企业更喜欢用一种货币搞定所有的事情。即便有一种比美元更坚挺的货币——假设叫XYZ币,那美国人也会宁愿只使用美元,而不是在XYZ币和美元之间频繁兑换。因此,正是法币已经被广泛接受,它才具有了巨大优势,能够阻止任何新货币取代它的地位。

正是因为哈耶克的上述立场,他才被比特币爱好者奉为了“比特币教父”。欧洲央行2012年针对虚拟货币的一项研究指出:“比特币的理论基础可以追溯到奥地利经济学派。”而哈耶克正是奥地利学派的代表人物。在谷歌上搜索关键词“哈耶克与比特币”,你会发现有不计其数的文章将哈耶克奉为“虚拟币先知”。他们还引了20世纪80年代的电视采访,证明哈耶克曾经“预测了比特币”。这些人坚信,市场终将选择一种最稳定可靠且不会被央行腐蚀的货币,那就是比特币。

很多比特币的拥趸认为,比特币作为一种价值储存手段是很有前途的,但作为一种货币则未必。MicroStrategy公司的首席执行官迈克尔•塞勒持有数十亿美元的比特币,他认为比特币是一笔很好的投资,但是比特币永远不会成为一种支付工具。而埃隆•马斯克曾经说:“纸币是会消亡的,虚拟货币是一种更好的价值转移方式,这是肯定的。”推特和Square公司的首席执行官杰克•多尔西也十分看好比特币,他认为:“全世界最终将只剩下一种货币,我个人认为那就是比特币。”比特币交易所Gemini的首席执行官卡梅隆•文克莱沃斯认为,作为一种高级货币,比特币是很有发展前途的。“因为人们明白了纸币的原理后都会问:‘等一下,这么多万亿的美元是哪来的,它们只是一堆印出来的纸。它对我手里的这些美元意味着什么?’”

事实上,比特币在日常购物中很少能够被接受,只不过它在资金转移上扮演了一个比较小众的角色,特别是在需要高度隐私的情况下。“如果大家都涌向比特币,那哈耶克就错了,因为他预测人们会选择购买力最稳定的货币。”佛罗里达州大西洋大学的经济学教授威廉•路德指出:“哈耶克喜欢的那种货币是非常稳定的,而比特币恰好相反,它极不稳定。”

以弗里德曼的观点来看,比特币取代美元或者欧元的可能性是很小的,因为所有人都只会使用成本最低、最方便的货币。如果有例外的话,只有一种可能,就是这个国家实施了高通胀的货币政策,既破坏了老百姓的购买力,又导致了物价的剧烈波动。弗里德曼指出,在物价出现极端波动的情况下,老百姓会使用外币在黑市上交易商品,就像委内瑞拉人目前正在使用美元和欧元一样。人们之所以不会用比特币购物,原因跟人们不会使用委内瑞拉币一样——比特币每天的币值波动都很大,上下9%的波动都属常事。因此,老百姓永远不知道他们的钱今天或者明天可以买到什么。

哈耶克和弗里德曼对“挑战者货币”的前景存在严重分歧,不过他们对比特币的看法应该是相似的。这两人可能都会称赞比特币是一次大胆的自由市场试验,不过两人应该都不会认为比特币将成为一种主要的货币形式。当然,哈耶克的观点是在20世纪80年代美国回归稳健货币政策之前提出的。在哈耶克看来,如果市场全面转向比特币,那就是走了一条“邪路”,相当于放弃了一种相对稳定的货币,选择了一种极不稳定的货币。而在弗里德曼看来,比特币面临的困境对所有新型货币都是一样的——它们几乎不可能获得消费者的广泛认可。

另外,还有一点这两位传奇人物应该也会同意,那就是比特币支持者声称的那样恰恰相反,比特币的架构存在一个根本性的缺陷,导致比特币的供给无法进行周期性调整以保持其购买力。首先我们来看看,就算比特币是一种最稳健的货币,它能不能与美元竞争。其次,它是否符合哈耶克和弗里德曼对一种理想货币的期待,也就是从长期来看,它有没有实力保障消费者和企业的利益。

弗里德曼:比特币输在“网络效应”

弗里德曼认为,由于“网络效应”(也就是某个事物的流行度取决于它的使用人数)的存在,哈耶克提出的“并行竞争货币”机制是不会成功的。在货币的问题上,“网络”的规模等于使用美元或欧元交易的消费者和企业的总数。根据弗里德曼的理论,使用美元的人越多,他们买卖商品和流通货币就越容易,成本也越低。路德解释道:“如果所有顾客和交易伙伴都使用美元,而且他们所有的顾客和交易伙伴也都使用美元,我为了节省时间和金钱就也会使用美元,而不是使用欧元或其他货币。”

如果一家企业或消费者使用了另一种货币,一旦他们需要与邻居或客户发生交易,而后者又在使用美元,那么他们就要承担将自己的钱兑换成美元的成本,而这显然是额外的交易成本。所以,使用一种普遍接受的货币,显然要比使用一种未被普遍接受的货币节省成本。路德表示:“如果你代理了一个自动售货机的生意,而且你换了一种新货币作为支付媒介,那么你就得对这些机器进行升级。”另外,企业为了接受这种新货币,还需要采用相关的定价和会计系统,这些都带来了额外的成本。

弗里德曼认为,单一货币具有很大的优势,因为它与多种货币并行的体系相比节省了大量的时间和金钱。另外,不同货币的交易和转换成本也是很高的。因此,即便现行的主要货币有些不稳定,民众和企业仍然会青睐现行货币。他还指出,随着时间的推移,德国马克和瑞士法郎的保值能力比美元强得多,美国公民在旅行时也会使用这两种货币,但他们并不会在美国本土使用这两种货币,因为来回兑换美元的成本是十分昂贵的。

哈耶克则认为,相比交易成本,人们对一种货币的价值波动更加敏感。路德指出:“哈耶克认为,在没有法律限制的情况下,货币的置换成本是微不足道的,重要的是哪种货币更高级。”如果一个国家允许竞争性的私人货币,消费者自然就会被最好的货币所吸引。他们就会抛弃失去购买力的法币,投向更可靠的新货币。

哈耶克指出,最终胜出的“挑战者货币”,要确保一定数量的新货币每年都可以购买相同或者几乎相同的商品和服务,而不能像法币那样购买力越来越差。哈耶克写道:“竞争性货币能够提供的最主要的吸引力,就是确保价格的稳定。”

那么,为什么在那些货币政策混乱无度的国家,人们没有转投私人货币的怀抱呢?哈耶克认为,这只是因为当地法律禁止竞争性货币的缘故。弗里德曼则认为,法律因素并不重要,除非少数极端情况,否则消费者和企业都会认为,使用一种大多数邻居和商店都不使用的货币的成本太高了。

几年后,索马里的一个案例研究为弗里德曼的观点提供了支持。1991年,索马里政府垮台,当时,索马里先令是该国流通最广的货币,但老百姓也可以自由使用任何货币。在这种情况下,有几种外来货币与索马里先令展开了竞争,导致后者迅速贬值。虽然不只一种竞争性货币比索马里先令更稳定,但大多数人还是继续通过索马里先令做生意。在这场公开竞赛中,弗里德曼的“网络效应说”战胜了哈耶克的观点,也就是说,人民对稳定的渴求占了上风。尤其令人惊讶的是,索马里老百姓是能够使用美元的,但这并未削弱先令的地位。即便是弗里德曼本人,也很可能会对索马里的网络效应的力量感到惊讶。

比特币的设计缺陷

弗里德曼和哈耶克都认为,最理想的货币政策,就是实现稳定的、可预测的、适当的物价增长。不过在弗里德曼职业生涯的早期,他在如何实现这一目标上是与哈耶克存在分歧的。他认为,随着时间的推移,持有货币的需求会与货币流通速度呈反比。因此,他认为美联储应按照一个固定的、预设的比例增加货币供给。

打个比方:如果央行的通胀目标是2%,而经济通常也以2%的速度增长,那么最好的方法就是将货币供给提高4%。超发的这4%的钱,将促进商品和服务的交易量提高2%,从而实现2%的物价上涨目标。路德解释道:“弗里德曼希望美联储将货币供给的增量设置在一个固定比例,它又被称为K百分比规则,K就是固定的货币供给增长率。”

就像路德指出的那样,K规则看起来很像比特币的模型。比特币的算法也限制了可供发行的比特币数量,并且为新币发行设定了一个固定速度。路德表示:“你可能会说,比特币与弗里德曼的K规则很像。”但事实上,比特币的供给是由计算机程序设计的,缺乏灵活性,这是它的一个明显的弱点。而哈耶克认为货币供给应具备一定的伸缩能力,这样才能够确保购买力的稳定。“哈耶克认为,如果货币的增量超过了货币的需求,就会导致一种不可持续的生产繁荣,最终会导致经济衰退。‘上当’的企业先会过度生产,然后付出巨大代价来缩小生产规模。”路德说。

到了20世纪80年代,弗里德曼修正了他的观点,开始向哈耶克靠拢。他发现,货币需求的变化要比他之前预想的大得多。因此,他接受了通胀目标的概念,并主张根据经济环境调整货币政策。路德介绍道:“弗里德曼认为,如果货币供给的崩溃超过了货币需求的减少,或者货币需求的增加没有被相应的货币供给的增加所满足,衰退就会随之而来。弗里德曼开始像哈耶克一样,认为货币供应应该与需求同步。”

比特币在设计上并不具备根据经济条件扩大或缩小货币供给的灵活性,新发币的数量也不会随着持有需求的涨跌而变化——而弗里德曼和哈耶克都认为,这是好的货币政策的必要特质。比特币的供给是由算法预先设定的,它不具备这种在哈耶克和弗里德曼看来十分重要的“减震器”功能。路德称:“比特币在设计上就没有考虑随需求变化而保持购买力不变的问题。”

由于比特币的数量是固定的,因此比特币价值的涨跌,主要取决于个人和机构投资者购买量的变化。就像路德指出的那样:“只有需求的剧变才能够影响它的价格,这正是比特币的特殊设计。”

让我们想象一个比特币取代了美元的世界。假设经济突然快速增长,美国的GDP从2%飙升至3%。根据弗里德曼或者哈耶克的模型,美联储可能会将货币供给提高一个百分点,此举可能还会导致信贷供给的提高,以满足建设新工厂、实验室和研发中心所需的债务债券需求。这样下来,总的通胀率是不变的。然而比特币是无法增加它的供给的。假设比特币成为法币,由于信贷需求超过了银行和投资者可放贷的资金,利率将会出现飙升,由此产生的紧缩,将导致经济繁荣迅速破灭。

另外,出于同样的原因,经济环境的变化还会放大新货币的价格变化。在经济繁荣时期,消费者和企业会争相购入由比特币计价的债券和贷款,在经济低迷时期则会售出这些工具,但比特币的发行速度却不会有任何变化来缓冲这种波动。在经济扩张时期,比特币的价格可能会大幅上涨,因为不会有比特币出现。而在现实世界中,美联储则会发行更多美元,以抑制币价上涨。比特币价格的大幅波动将增加跨国公司面临的风险,因为币值的变化,意味着它们从中国、日本、德国等地购买的半导体、家电或纺织品的价格也在不断变化。

波动性问题

作为一种货币来说,比特币目前的波动性还是太大了。“它的吸引力哪怕相对其他货币产生了很小的变化,也会对以后人们使用它的意愿产生巨大影响。”路德说:“如果我们听到了一个坏消息,人们就会觉得想用它的人变少了,它的价值就会突然跳水。”比如说,前一阵埃隆•马斯克宣布特斯拉将购入价值15亿美元的比特币,比特币的价值立即出现飙升;后来特斯拉又宣布不再接受比特币购车,它的币值应声大幅下跌。再比如说,在Visa和Mastercard宣布不再支持某情色网站的付费后,比特币的币值再度飙升,因为人们现在只能用比特币等虚拟货币给这个网站充值了。

现在,比特币波动性是标准普尔500指数(S&P 500)的9倍、黄金的6倍。即使比特币已经被更多人接受,它的波动性仍然远超其他竞争性货币,因为它的设计不支持通过供给的变化来降低其波动性。

即使随着时间的推移,比特币的币值变得更加稳定了,它也不太可能成为一种成功的货币。理由有二:一是比特币僵化的架构无法保障它的购买力,原因是正如我们上面所讨论的,它的发币量完全不够灵活;二是各国可能会发行自己的数字货币。比如,中国已经公布了人民币数字化的计划。光是这条新闻就严重打击了比特币的价格。

路德指出:“美国也能够创造一种数字货币。美联储是美元的发行者,并代表银行持有数字化的美元储备金。它完全可以打造一种名叫‘数字美元’的新货币,它能够与现金美元和储备金等价交换。消费者也可以将数字美元兑换成现金。”人们能够通过电子钱包进行数字美元的交易,就像比特币交易一样,而不用通过银行。也可以在收银台扫描手机进行支付,这样余额就从消费者的手机钱包转移到了商家的数字美元账户。这些支付活动是在信用卡系统之外进行的,而且省去了高额的“交易费”。路德指出:“对比特币来说,它面临的一个最主要的危险,就是有可能会被各国央行发行的数字货币超越。”

比特币的未来:何去何从?

主权国家发行的数字货币将进一步限制比特币的未来。但比特币作为一种交易媒介仍然有着巨大的潜力,特别是在需要隐私的大笔交易上。路德称:“比特币在这方面做得特别好,而其他货币在这方面还不能够与之比拟。”当然,比特币也被用于许多非法交易,包括用于支付勒索软件攻击的赎金等等,所以各国政府都想打击比特币的地下交易。不过比特币是很难控制的,而且这也是它的一个优点。路德说:“现金也被用于地下交易,但和现金相比,政府阻止比特币交易的难度要大得多。”

弗里德曼和哈耶克如果仍然健在,他们会如何看待比特币呢?路德曾经仔细研究过这两位经济学家的观点,他表示:“作为一项试验,他们会高度评价比特币发展和它的相对的成功。从理论上讲,他们可能会认为,比特币作为一种货币能够有效遏制政府无节制的支出,但他们也希望比特币可以有一种货币供给机制来调节货币的需求变化,而比特币却并没有这种机制。”路德认为,弗里德曼和哈耶克绝不会认为比特币有可能取代美元作为美国的主要货币。他们二人最多会认为,比特币最佳的角色,就是像现在这样,保持交易的私密性。

如今的比特币已经是金融世界的一个庞然大物。但从这两位伟大的经济学家的理论来看,随着全世界认识到它的能力非常有限,它的宏伟形象很可能也将逐渐消退。(财富中文网)

译者:朴成奎

这是两位20世纪货币经济学巨人之间的一场传奇性的辩论。争论的焦点是,是否会有一种“挑战者货币”能够取代政府发行的法币,成为全球范围的一种新的支付媒介。虽然对他们来说,比特币(Bitcoin)是一种几十年后的产物,但两位大师如果仍然健在,他们会如何看待比特币,会不会认为它有能力挑战法币呢?

首先上场的是奥地利裔英籍经济学家、古典自由主义大师弗里德里希•哈耶克,他的对手是倡导自由市场的米尔顿•弗里德曼。哈耶克与弗里德曼在很多问题上的看法都是相似的,不过二者争论的焦点是,如果出现了一种私人发行的竞争性货币,它是否有可能构建一个更加稳定的货币系统。20世纪70年代中后期,受阿拉伯石油禁运的影响,美国的汽油、机票乃至家庭采暖价格都出现了飞涨,美元体系进入了二战后最危险的时期。为了应对这种冲击,美联储向市场大量放水,削弱了几乎所有人的购买力。美国的消费价格指数一向是以比较平稳的速度上涨的,在这一阶段的增长率却达到了14%。

哈耶克于1950年到1962年间在芝加哥大学任教,他与弗里德曼在那里共事了很多年,这两位经济学家对彼此都很了解,但二人并未发生过面对面的争论。哈耶克将他的观点写进了20世纪70年代中后期的一系列演讲和论文里,并于1976年出版了《货币的非国家化》(The Denationalization of Money)一书。在20世纪七八十年代,二人的观点尚未对立。不过从20世纪80年代开始,弗里德曼在与经济学家安娜•施瓦茨合著的书中,首次对哈耶克的观点进行了公开批判。

在当时,美国的政治家、学者和普通民众都担心美元体系将走向崩溃。而美联储则采取了与以往的“稳健货币”政策截然相反的政策,美元贬值的速度甚至超过了美国工人赚取美元的速度。哈耶克认为,在经济困难时期,各国央行会通过超发货币,迅速将经济人为地推到一个高点,这样就会出现美国当时正在经历的那种通胀。哈耶克认为,对于这种情况,解决方案是让银行或者其他公司发行私人货币,在公开市场上与主权货币进行竞争。哪一种或几种私人货币最能够保持住消费者的稳定购买力,哪一种就可以成功地吸引最多的用户。

如果美联储继续大量超发货币,导致美元的购买力越来越弱,私营货币就将取代美元的地位。这种“让最好的货币获胜”的理念将终止政府这种不计后果的货币政策,央行要么会被迫改革,要么就会出台新的、更稳定的货币政策。

弗里德曼(左)与哈耶克,20世纪最著名的两位经济学家。

弗里德曼并不反对竞争性货币挑战法币。但他认为哈耶克错了,“挑战者货币”注定是要失败的。在弗里德曼看来,人们和企业确实关心购买力的问题,但他们更重视自己和邻居、和贸易伙伴是不是使用同一种货币。他表示,消费者和企业更喜欢用一种货币搞定所有的事情。即便有一种比美元更坚挺的货币——假设叫XYZ币,那美国人也会宁愿只使用美元,而不是在XYZ币和美元之间频繁兑换。因此,正是法币已经被广泛接受,它才具有了巨大优势,能够阻止任何新货币取代它的地位。

正是因为哈耶克的上述立场,他才被比特币爱好者奉为了“比特币教父”。欧洲央行2012年针对虚拟货币的一项研究指出:“比特币的理论基础可以追溯到奥地利经济学派。”而哈耶克正是奥地利学派的代表人物。在谷歌上搜索关键词“哈耶克与比特币”,你会发现有不计其数的文章将哈耶克奉为“虚拟币先知”。他们还引了20世纪80年代的电视采访,证明哈耶克曾经“预测了比特币”。这些人坚信,市场终将选择一种最稳定可靠且不会被央行腐蚀的货币,那就是比特币。

很多比特币的拥趸认为,比特币作为一种价值储存手段是很有前途的,但作为一种货币则未必。MicroStrategy公司的首席执行官迈克尔•塞勒持有数十亿美元的比特币,他认为比特币是一笔很好的投资,但是比特币永远不会成为一种支付工具。而埃隆•马斯克曾经说:“纸币是会消亡的,虚拟货币是一种更好的价值转移方式,这是肯定的。”推特和Square公司的首席执行官杰克•多尔西也十分看好比特币,他认为:“全世界最终将只剩下一种货币,我个人认为那就是比特币。”比特币交易所Gemini的首席执行官卡梅隆•文克莱沃斯认为,作为一种高级货币,比特币是很有发展前途的。“因为人们明白了纸币的原理后都会问:‘等一下,这么多万亿的美元是哪来的,它们只是一堆印出来的纸。它对我手里的这些美元意味着什么?’”

事实上,比特币在日常购物中很少能够被接受,只不过它在资金转移上扮演了一个比较小众的角色,特别是在需要高度隐私的情况下。“如果大家都涌向比特币,那哈耶克就错了,因为他预测人们会选择购买力最稳定的货币。”佛罗里达州大西洋大学的经济学教授威廉•路德指出:“哈耶克喜欢的那种货币是非常稳定的,而比特币恰好相反,它极不稳定。”

以弗里德曼的观点来看,比特币取代美元或者欧元的可能性是很小的,因为所有人都只会使用成本最低、最方便的货币。如果有例外的话,只有一种可能,就是这个国家实施了高通胀的货币政策,既破坏了老百姓的购买力,又导致了物价的剧烈波动。弗里德曼指出,在物价出现极端波动的情况下,老百姓会使用外币在黑市上交易商品,就像委内瑞拉人目前正在使用美元和欧元一样。人们之所以不会用比特币购物,原因跟人们不会使用委内瑞拉币一样——比特币每天的币值波动都很大,上下9%的波动都属常事。因此,老百姓永远不知道他们的钱今天或者明天可以买到什么。

哈耶克和弗里德曼对“挑战者货币”的前景存在严重分歧,不过他们对比特币的看法应该是相似的。这两人可能都会称赞比特币是一次大胆的自由市场试验,不过两人应该都不会认为比特币将成为一种主要的货币形式。当然,哈耶克的观点是在20世纪80年代美国回归稳健货币政策之前提出的。在哈耶克看来,如果市场全面转向比特币,那就是走了一条“邪路”,相当于放弃了一种相对稳定的货币,选择了一种极不稳定的货币。而在弗里德曼看来,比特币面临的困境对所有新型货币都是一样的——它们几乎不可能获得消费者的广泛认可。

另外,还有一点这两位传奇人物应该也会同意,那就是比特币支持者声称的那样恰恰相反,比特币的架构存在一个根本性的缺陷,导致比特币的供给无法进行周期性调整以保持其购买力。首先我们来看看,就算比特币是一种最稳健的货币,它能不能与美元竞争。其次,它是否符合哈耶克和弗里德曼对一种理想货币的期待,也就是从长期来看,它有没有实力保障消费者和企业的利益。

弗里德曼:比特币输在“网络效应”

弗里德曼认为,由于“网络效应”(也就是某个事物的流行度取决于它的使用人数)的存在,哈耶克提出的“并行竞争货币”机制是不会成功的。在货币的问题上,“网络”的规模等于使用美元或欧元交易的消费者和企业的总数。根据弗里德曼的理论,使用美元的人越多,他们买卖商品和流通货币就越容易,成本也越低。路德解释道:“如果所有顾客和交易伙伴都使用美元,而且他们所有的顾客和交易伙伴也都使用美元,我为了节省时间和金钱就也会使用美元,而不是使用欧元或其他货币。”

如果一家企业或消费者使用了另一种货币,一旦他们需要与邻居或客户发生交易,而后者又在使用美元,那么他们就要承担将自己的钱兑换成美元的成本,而这显然是额外的交易成本。所以,使用一种普遍接受的货币,显然要比使用一种未被普遍接受的货币节省成本。路德表示:“如果你代理了一个自动售货机的生意,而且你换了一种新货币作为支付媒介,那么你就得对这些机器进行升级。”另外,企业为了接受这种新货币,还需要采用相关的定价和会计系统,这些都带来了额外的成本。

弗里德曼认为,单一货币具有很大的优势,因为它与多种货币并行的体系相比节省了大量的时间和金钱。另外,不同货币的交易和转换成本也是很高的。因此,即便现行的主要货币有些不稳定,民众和企业仍然会青睐现行货币。他还指出,随着时间的推移,德国马克和瑞士法郎的保值能力比美元强得多,美国公民在旅行时也会使用这两种货币,但他们并不会在美国本土使用这两种货币,因为来回兑换美元的成本是十分昂贵的。

哈耶克则认为,相比交易成本,人们对一种货币的价值波动更加敏感。路德指出:“哈耶克认为,在没有法律限制的情况下,货币的置换成本是微不足道的,重要的是哪种货币更高级。”如果一个国家允许竞争性的私人货币,消费者自然就会被最好的货币所吸引。他们就会抛弃失去购买力的法币,投向更可靠的新货币。

哈耶克指出,最终胜出的“挑战者货币”,要确保一定数量的新货币每年都可以购买相同或者几乎相同的商品和服务,而不能像法币那样购买力越来越差。哈耶克写道:“竞争性货币能够提供的最主要的吸引力,就是确保价格的稳定。”

那么,为什么在那些货币政策混乱无度的国家,人们没有转投私人货币的怀抱呢?哈耶克认为,这只是因为当地法律禁止竞争性货币的缘故。弗里德曼则认为,法律因素并不重要,除非少数极端情况,否则消费者和企业都会认为,使用一种大多数邻居和商店都不使用的货币的成本太高了。

几年后,索马里的一个案例研究为弗里德曼的观点提供了支持。1991年,索马里政府垮台,当时,索马里先令是该国流通最广的货币,但老百姓也可以自由使用任何货币。在这种情况下,有几种外来货币与索马里先令展开了竞争,导致后者迅速贬值。虽然不只一种竞争性货币比索马里先令更稳定,但大多数人还是继续通过索马里先令做生意。在这场公开竞赛中,弗里德曼的“网络效应说”战胜了哈耶克的观点,也就是说,人民对稳定的渴求占了上风。尤其令人惊讶的是,索马里老百姓是能够使用美元的,但这并未削弱先令的地位。即便是弗里德曼本人,也很可能会对索马里的网络效应的力量感到惊讶。

比特币的设计缺陷

弗里德曼和哈耶克都认为,最理想的货币政策,就是实现稳定的、可预测的、适当的物价增长。不过在弗里德曼职业生涯的早期,他在如何实现这一目标上是与哈耶克存在分歧的。他认为,随着时间的推移,持有货币的需求会与货币流通速度呈反比。因此,他认为美联储应按照一个固定的、预设的比例增加货币供给。

打个比方:如果央行的通胀目标是2%,而经济通常也以2%的速度增长,那么最好的方法就是将货币供给提高4%。超发的这4%的钱,将促进商品和服务的交易量提高2%,从而实现2%的物价上涨目标。路德解释道:“弗里德曼希望美联储将货币供给的增量设置在一个固定比例,它又被称为K百分比规则,K就是固定的货币供给增长率。”

就像路德指出的那样,K规则看起来很像比特币的模型。比特币的算法也限制了可供发行的比特币数量,并且为新币发行设定了一个固定速度。路德表示:“你可能会说,比特币与弗里德曼的K规则很像。”但事实上,比特币的供给是由计算机程序设计的,缺乏灵活性,这是它的一个明显的弱点。而哈耶克认为货币供给应具备一定的伸缩能力,这样才能够确保购买力的稳定。“哈耶克认为,如果货币的增量超过了货币的需求,就会导致一种不可持续的生产繁荣,最终会导致经济衰退。‘上当’的企业先会过度生产,然后付出巨大代价来缩小生产规模。”路德说。

到了20世纪80年代,弗里德曼修正了他的观点,开始向哈耶克靠拢。他发现,货币需求的变化要比他之前预想的大得多。因此,他接受了通胀目标的概念,并主张根据经济环境调整货币政策。路德介绍道:“弗里德曼认为,如果货币供给的崩溃超过了货币需求的减少,或者货币需求的增加没有被相应的货币供给的增加所满足,衰退就会随之而来。弗里德曼开始像哈耶克一样,认为货币供应应该与需求同步。”

比特币在设计上并不具备根据经济条件扩大或缩小货币供给的灵活性,新发币的数量也不会随着持有需求的涨跌而变化——而弗里德曼和哈耶克都认为,这是好的货币政策的必要特质。比特币的供给是由算法预先设定的,它不具备这种在哈耶克和弗里德曼看来十分重要的“减震器”功能。路德称:“比特币在设计上就没有考虑随需求变化而保持购买力不变的问题。”

由于比特币的数量是固定的,因此比特币价值的涨跌,主要取决于个人和机构投资者购买量的变化。就像路德指出的那样:“只有需求的剧变才能够影响它的价格,这正是比特币的特殊设计。”

让我们想象一个比特币取代了美元的世界。假设经济突然快速增长,美国的GDP从2%飙升至3%。根据弗里德曼或者哈耶克的模型,美联储可能会将货币供给提高一个百分点,此举可能还会导致信贷供给的提高,以满足建设新工厂、实验室和研发中心所需的债务债券需求。这样下来,总的通胀率是不变的。然而比特币是无法增加它的供给的。假设比特币成为法币,由于信贷需求超过了银行和投资者可放贷的资金,利率将会出现飙升,由此产生的紧缩,将导致经济繁荣迅速破灭。

另外,出于同样的原因,经济环境的变化还会放大新货币的价格变化。在经济繁荣时期,消费者和企业会争相购入由比特币计价的债券和贷款,在经济低迷时期则会售出这些工具,但比特币的发行速度却不会有任何变化来缓冲这种波动。在经济扩张时期,比特币的价格可能会大幅上涨,因为不会有比特币出现。而在现实世界中,美联储则会发行更多美元,以抑制币价上涨。比特币价格的大幅波动将增加跨国公司面临的风险,因为币值的变化,意味着它们从中国、日本、德国等地购买的半导体、家电或纺织品的价格也在不断变化。

波动性问题

作为一种货币来说,比特币目前的波动性还是太大了。“它的吸引力哪怕相对其他货币产生了很小的变化,也会对以后人们使用它的意愿产生巨大影响。”路德说:“如果我们听到了一个坏消息,人们就会觉得想用它的人变少了,它的价值就会突然跳水。”比如说,前一阵埃隆•马斯克宣布特斯拉将购入价值15亿美元的比特币,比特币的价值立即出现飙升;后来特斯拉又宣布不再接受比特币购车,它的币值应声大幅下跌。再比如说,在Visa和Mastercard宣布不再支持某情色网站的付费后,比特币的币值再度飙升,因为人们现在只能用比特币等虚拟货币给这个网站充值了。

现在,比特币波动性是标准普尔500指数(S&P 500)的9倍、黄金的6倍。即使比特币已经被更多人接受,它的波动性仍然远超其他竞争性货币,因为它的设计不支持通过供给的变化来降低其波动性。

即使随着时间的推移,比特币的币值变得更加稳定了,它也不太可能成为一种成功的货币。理由有二:一是比特币僵化的架构无法保障它的购买力,原因是正如我们上面所讨论的,它的发币量完全不够灵活;二是各国可能会发行自己的数字货币。比如,中国已经公布了人民币数字化的计划。光是这条新闻就严重打击了比特币的价格。

路德指出:“美国也能够创造一种数字货币。美联储是美元的发行者,并代表银行持有数字化的美元储备金。它完全可以打造一种名叫‘数字美元’的新货币,它能够与现金美元和储备金等价交换。消费者也可以将数字美元兑换成现金。”人们能够通过电子钱包进行数字美元的交易,就像比特币交易一样,而不用通过银行。也可以在收银台扫描手机进行支付,这样余额就从消费者的手机钱包转移到了商家的数字美元账户。这些支付活动是在信用卡系统之外进行的,而且省去了高额的“交易费”。路德指出:“对比特币来说,它面临的一个最主要的危险,就是有可能会被各国央行发行的数字货币超越。”

比特币的未来:何去何从?

主权国家发行的数字货币将进一步限制比特币的未来。但比特币作为一种交易媒介仍然有着巨大的潜力,特别是在需要隐私的大笔交易上。路德称:“比特币在这方面做得特别好,而其他货币在这方面还不能够与之比拟。”当然,比特币也被用于许多非法交易,包括用于支付勒索软件攻击的赎金等等,所以各国政府都想打击比特币的地下交易。不过比特币是很难控制的,而且这也是它的一个优点。路德说:“现金也被用于地下交易,但和现金相比,政府阻止比特币交易的难度要大得多。”

弗里德曼和哈耶克如果仍然健在,他们会如何看待比特币呢?路德曾经仔细研究过这两位经济学家的观点,他表示:“作为一项试验,他们会高度评价比特币发展和它的相对的成功。从理论上讲,他们可能会认为,比特币作为一种货币能够有效遏制政府无节制的支出,但他们也希望比特币可以有一种货币供给机制来调节货币的需求变化,而比特币却并没有这种机制。”路德认为,弗里德曼和哈耶克绝不会认为比特币有可能取代美元作为美国的主要货币。他们二人最多会认为,比特币最佳的角色,就是像现在这样,保持交易的私密性。

如今的比特币已经是金融世界的一个庞然大物。但从这两位伟大的经济学家的理论来看,随着全世界认识到它的能力非常有限,它的宏伟形象很可能也将逐渐消退。(财富中文网)

译者:朴成奎

It was a fabled debate between two 20th-century giants of monetary economics. The issue: Whether “challenger currencies” could ever displace standard, government-backed currencies as the world’s payment medium of choice. And although the invention of Bitcoin was decades away, the two sages could have been talking about whether the cryptocurrency could ever rise to become coin of the realm, or even a contender.

At one podium was Friedrich Hayek, the Austrian-British titan who championed classic liberalism. Across this imaginary stage stood Milton Friedman, a fellow apostle of free markets. The standoff between the usually like-minded pair centered on whether competing currencies, floated by private issuers, would create a more stable monetary system. When they faced off in the mid-to-late 1970s, the dollar regime was the most unhinged it had been at any time since World War II. The Arab oil embargo had sent prices for gasoline, airline tickets, and home heating on a tear. To counter the shock, the Federal Reserve was flooding the markets with easy money that undermined purchasing power for virtually everything else. The consumer price index, which had traditionally risen at a smooth and modest pace, roared at an annual rate that reached 14%.

Hayek taught at the University of Chicago from 1950 to 1962, years that overlapped Friedman’s long tenure there, and the two economists knew each other well. But the pair didn’t debate face-to-face. Hayek made his case in a series of speeches and papers in the mid-to-late 1970s, and in his 1976 book The Denationalization of Money. They reportedly matched their dueling theories at industry events in the 1970s and 1980s. Friedman’s first public criticism of Hayek’s ideas apparently appeared in his writing with fellow economist Anna Schwartz in the 1980s.

Politicians, academics, and folks on the street fretted that the system was broken. The Fed was pursuing the opposite of its old “sound money” policies by eroding the value of U.S. dollars faster than America’s workers would earn them. Hayek contended that central banks would keep overinflating the money supply in tough times to give economies a quick, artificial high, stoking more of the kind of inflation the U.S. was witnessing at the time. The solution, he argued, was for private monies issued by banks or other companies to battle for customers with sovereign currencies in an open marketplace. The one or even several contenders that did the best job maintaining steady purchasing power for consumers and businesses would win by attracting the most users.

If the Fed kept issuing dollars that bought less and less, privately managed newcomers would supplant the wobbly greenback. The “let the best currency win” concept would halt reckless monetary policies, either by forcing central banks to reform, or by opening the way for new, more stable currencies to take charge.

Friedman had no objections to letting freedom ring by allowing rival currencies to vie for supremacy. But he believed Hayek was wrong and that the challengers would fail. For Friedman, people and companies indeed care about purchasing power. But they place a far higher value on using the same currency as their neighbors and trading partners. Consumers and businesses, he said, prefer doing everything in one currency. Even if an alternative, what we’ll call XYZ-coin, is more stable than the dollar, Americans would rather use only dollars than keep trading back and forth between XYZ-coin and the greenback. Hence, owing to their overwhelmingly widespread acceptance, the reigning, incumbent monies enjoy a huge edge that would block the invaders from gaining a foothold.

For Bitcoin fans, Hayek’s stance makes him a godfather of the largest cryptocurrency. In a 2012 study of the virtual currencies, the European Central Bank stated that “the roots of Bitcoin can be found in the Austrian school of economics,” of which Hayek was a leading voice. Google “Hayek and Bitcoin,” and you’ll see sundry posts by bloggers and academics that refer to Hayek by such titles as “the prophet of cryptocurrencies” and citing 1980s TV interviews that show the elderly economist “predicting Bitcoin”. Indeed, this camp believes that the market will eventually trend to the most stable, reliable money that can’t be corrupted by central banks, and that’s Bitcoin.

Many Bitcoin fans think it has a great future as a store of value, but not as a currency. Michael Saylor, the MicroStrategy CEO who’s renowned for parking billions of dollars’ worth of Bitcoin on the web service provider’s balance sheet, considers it a great investment but predicts it will never be a medium of exchange. By contrast, Elon Musk has stated that “paper money is going away, and crypto is a far better way to transfer value, that’s for sure.” Bitcoin bull Jack Dorsey, chief of Twitter and Square, forecasts that “the world ultimately will have a single currency, and I personally believe that will be Bitcoin.” Bitcoin will gain traction as a superior currency, says Cameron Winklevoss of Bitcoin exchange Gemini, “because of all the money printing and people looking at what’s going on and [saying], ‘Wait a second, where are all these trillions coming from, they’re actually just being printed. What does that mean for other dollars that I’m holding?’”

But in fact, Bitcoin has found little acceptance for everyday purchases, though it’s secured a niche role in transferring funds, notably when privacy is paramount. “If it were true that people are flocking to Bitcoin as a currency, Hayek would be wrong, because he predicted they’d choose the one with the most stable purchasing power,” says William Luther, a professor of economics at Florida Atlantic University. “The kind of money Hayek favored was very stable, and Bitcoin is the opposite. It’s extremely volatile.”

From Friedman’s point of view, Bitcoin would stand little chance against the dollar or euro. That’s because the money everyone now uses is the least costly, most convenient money to keep using. The exception comes in nations that conduct highly inflationary monetary policies that both destroy purchasing power and cause wildly careening prices. In cases of extreme volatility, said Friedman, customers will buy and sell on the black market using a stable foreign currency, as Venezuelans are now deploying the dollar and euro. They’re not buying groceries or paying rent in Bitcoin for the same reason they’re shunning the Venezuelan bolivar: The signature cryptocurrency’s lurching daily swings, averaging 9% from the low to the high, mean families would never know what their budgets can buy from one day to the next.

Hayek and Friedman strongly disagreed on the future of challenger currencies. But they would share similar views on Bitcoin. Both might well praise the concept as a bold, free market experiment. But neither would like Bitcoin as a leading form of money. Of course, Hayek made his case before U.S. monetary policy returned to a far steadier course in the 1980s and onwards. For Hayek, moving to Bitcoin would be going the wrong way, from a relatively stable currency to a drastically unstable one. For Friedman, Bitcoin would face the handicap plaguing all newcomers: the virtual impossibility of winning widespread acceptance.

But the two legends would also agree that contrary to what its supporters claim, Bitcoin’s architecture harbors a fundamental flaw. It ensures that Bitcoin’s supply can’t adjust to keep purchasing power constant through up and down cycles. Let’s examine first, whether Bitcoin could compete with the dollar even if it were the soundest of currencies. And second, how Bitcoin fits with Hayek’s and Friedman’s take on the qualities that constitute a stalwart money—the strengths needed to keep customers and businesses whole in years to come.

Friedman: Bitcoin fails at the “network effect”

Friedman posited that Hayek’s proposed regime of “concurrent competing currencies” wouldn’t work because of what’s called the “network effect.” The idea is that the popularity of an item depends on the number of people using it. In the case of a currency, the universe of consumers and businesses dealing in dollars or euros represents the size of “the network.” According to Friedman, the more people who adopt the dollar, the cheaper and easier it is for them to buy and sell things, and transfer money. “If all my customers and trading partners are using dollars, and all of their customers and trading partners also use dollars, I’ll save time and money using dollars instead of euros or another currency,” says Luther.

If a business or consumer moves to an alternative currency, they will incur costs transferring their money into the dollars that their neighbors or customers are using. Those are extra transaction costs. Buying and selling in a commonly accepted medium of exchange lowers transaction costs versus using a relatively uncommon currency. “There are also ‘switching costs,’” says Luther. “If you have a vending machine business and you switch to a new currency, you need to update those machines.” Companies would also need to adopt their pricing and accounting systems to make and accept payments in more than one domestic currency.

Friedman argued that single currencies hold a big advantage because they save so much time and money versus a multi-money regime. Transactions and switching costs, he added, are extremely high. Hence, even if the prevailing money is somewhat unstable, folks and companies will still prefer the incumbent currency. He noted that the deutsche mark and Swiss franc held their value a lot better than the U.S. dollar over time, and that U.S. citizens used them when traveling, but that Americans don’t use either one stateside because switching back and forth to dollars would be extremely expensive.

By contrast, Hayek contended that people are much more sensitive to fluctuations in the value of a currency than to transaction costs. “Hayek said the costs of switching were minuscule in the absence of legal restrictions,” says Luther. “All that matters is which currency is superior.” If a nation allowed competing private monies, customers would gravitate to the best ones. They would dump the sovereign notes that keep bouncing around and losing purchasing power, and embrace the new reliables.

The winning challenger, he said, would ensure that a set amount of the new currency will buy the same, or nearly the same basket of goods and services year after year, outclassing the sovereign money that buys less and less. Wrote Hayek, “The chief attraction the issuer of a competitive currency has to offer is the assurance that its price will be kept stable.”

So why weren’t people switching to private currencies in nations imposing profligate monetary policies? For Hayek, it was strictly because local laws banned the rival monies. For Friedman, it mattered little what the regulations said: Except in extreme cases, consumers and companies would find it too costly to adopt a currency that most neighbors and stores weren’t using.

Years later, a case study in Somalia backed Friedman’s position. In 1991, the Somalian government collapsed. At the time, the Somalian shilling was by far the most widely circulated currency. Citizens were free to use any money they wanted. Several local entries competed with the shilling, which rapidly declined in value. Although at least one competitor was more stable, most people kept doing business in shillings. In this open contest, Friedman’s network effect won over Hayek’s conviction that the yearning for steadiness would prevail. Amazingly, U.S. dollars were also available to Somalian citizens, but didn’t drive out the shilling. Even Friedman might have been surprised by the power of the network effect in Somalia.

The flaw in Bitcoin’s design

Friedman and Hayek agreed that establishing consistent, predictable, and modest growth in prices was the holy grail of monetary policy. But early in Friedman’s career, he differed from Hayek on how to achieve that ideal. He maintained that demand to hold money that’s inversely related to “velocity of money,” or pace of transactions, is pretty much constant over time. As a result, he argued, the Fed should increase the money supply at a fixed, preestablished rate.

If the central bank targets 2% inflation, and the economy typically expands at 2%, the best course is to swell the money supply 4%. Then 4% more money each year would be chasing a volume of goods and services expanding at 2%, lifting prices by the 2% goal. “Friedman wanted the Fed to set the growth of money at a constant rate and walk away,” says Luther. “It was called the K-percent rule. K was the fixed rate in money supply growth.”

As Luther points out, the K-rule looks a lot like the Bitcoin model. The cryptocurrency’s algorithm caps the number of Bitcoin that can ever be released, and sets a fixed pace for the issuance of new coins. “You could argue that Bitcoin comes close to Friedman’s old K-rule,” says Luther. But the fact that the supply of Bitcoin is preprogrammed and inflexible constitutes a glaring weakness. Hayek wanted the supply of money to expand and contract to stabilize purchasing power. “Hayek said if you get a surge in money growth that exceeds money demand, it would encourage an unsustainable boom in production that would eventually result in a recession. Companies would be fooled into overproducing and eventually have to scale back at great cost,” says Luther.

In the 1980s, Friedman revised his view, moving closer to Hayek. He found that the demand for money varied much more than than he previously thought. As a result, he embraced inflation targeting, and advocated adjusting the monetary spigot depending on economic circumstances. “Friedman said that if you have a collapse in the money supply that exceeds the reduction in money demand, or an increase in money demand that is not met by a commensurate increase in the money supply, a recession will follow,” says Luther. “Friedman came to believe like Hayek that the supply of money should move hand in hand with the demand for it.”

Bitcoin’s design does not provide the flexibility to grow or shrink its supply depending on the economic conditions. The amount of newly issued Bitcoin cannot ebb and flow with demand to hold it—the quality that for Friedman and Hayek was the hallmark of sound monetary policy. The supply of Bitcoin is preset by its algorithm. It does not feature the shock absorbers that Hayek and Friedman deemed essential. “Bitcoin’s designed so that it cannot keep purchasing power constant in response to changes in demand,” says Luther.

Since its quantity is fixed, only a jump or drop in the the amounts of Bitcoin that individuals and funds purchase will push its price up or down. As Luther puts it, “Bitcoin’s specifically designed so that only a demand shock can affect its price.”

Let’s imagine a world where Bitcoin replaces the dollar. The economy suddenly shifts into overdrive where GDP growth spikes from 2% to 3%. In the Friedman or Hayek models, the Fed could lift the money supply by the one percentage point change in the growth rate. That move would raise the supply of credit to match the increased demand for loans and bond offerings to fund new plants, fabs, and research centers. The inflation rate wouldn’t change. But Bitcoin can’t increase its supply. In a Bitcoin regime, interest rates would spike as demand for credit outstripped the funds that banks and investors have available to lend. The resulting squeeze would quickly deflate the boom.

In addition, economic shifts would magnify changes in our new currency’s price, for the same reason. When consumers and companies compete for Bitcoin-denominated bonds and loans in an expansion, or sell those instruments in a downturn, the rate of Bitcoin issuance doesn’t change to cushion the swings. In an expansion, Bitcoin’s price could jump sharply because no more Bitcoin would appear, whereas the Fed would have issued additional dollars, restraining the increase. Big swings in Bitcoin’s price would raise risks for multinationals by constantly shifting what they’re paying in the newly prevailing medium of exchange for semiconductors, appliances, or textiles produced in China, Japan, or Germany.

The volatility problem

Right now, Bitcoin is far too volatile to work as a currency. “Very small changes in its attractiveness relative to other currencies have a huge effect on how much people will want to use it in the future,” says Luther. “If we get bad news, people think that fewer people will use it, and the price suddenly tanks.” He cites the surge when Elon Musk announced that Tesla had purchased $1.5 billion in Bitcoin, the subsequent drop when Musk declared that the EV-maker would no longer accept it for auto purchases, and the surge when Visa and Mastercard stopped accepting payments for the Pornhub site, forcing users to resort to Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies.

Today, Bitcoin’s volatility is nine times that of the S&P 500 and six times that of gold. Even if it gains much more general acceptance, Bitcoin’s price would still careen through higher peaks and deeper valleys than competing currencies—because its design doesn’t allow for changes in supply that would smooth those swings.

But even if the supporters are right and Bitcoin becomes more stable over time, it’s still unlikely to ever succeed as a currency. The reasons are twofold. The first: Its rigid architecture would fail at safeguarding purchasing power, since, as we’ve discussed above, the amount being issued is totally inflexible. The second: Nations are likely to adopt their own digital currencies. China has already unveiled plans for a digital yuan; the news alone hit Bitcoin’s price.

“The U.S. could also create a digital currency,” says Luther. “The Fed now issues dollars, and holds digital dollar balances on behalf of banks. It could create a new class called digital dollars that are equivalent to cash and reserve balances. Customers could convert the digital dollars to cash.” People could exchange digital dollars from wallet to wallet like Bitcoin without going through banks, or pay by scanning their iPhones at the checkout counter so that payments go from the consumer’s iPhone wallet to a the retailer’s digital dollars account. Those payments would happen outside the credit card system and skirt big “interchange” fees. “For Bitcoin, a major danger is that it could be outcompeted by digital currencies issued by central banks,” says Luther.

What is Bitcoin’s future?

Digital currencies issued by sovereign nations would further limit Bitcoin’s future. But Bitcoin has strong potential as a niche medium of exchange for transactions, especially big ones, where privacy is critical. “It’s the one thing Bitcoin does exceptionally well that other monies don’t,” says Luther. Of course, Bitcoin is being deployed in lots of illicit transactions, including payments in ransomware attacks, and governments will attempt to crack down on its secret use. But Bitcoin will be hard to control, and that’s another of its pluses. “Governments can do only so many things to discourage its use,” says Luther. “It’s much harder for governments to stop Bitcoin transactions than to block the use of cash, which they can just stop printing, and which is also used for secret transactions.”

How does Luther, who has closely studied the views of the influential monetary economists, think Friedman and Hayek would regard Bitcoin were they working today? “They would applaud its development and relative success as an experiment,” he observes. “They’d see it in theory as a useful check on reckless government spending. But they would want a supply mechanism that takes account of changes in demand to hold money, and Bitcoin doesn’t have that.” Friedman or Hayek would never think Bitcoin could or should replace the dollar as the primary U.S. currency, says Luther. Its best role, they would probably agree, is what it’s used for now, keeping transactions private.

Bitcoin casts a giant shadow in the financial world. But as the two great minds might have concluded, its towering image will recede as the world recognizes that its future is strictly niche.

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