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利用老地图和雷达科技,寻找原住民儿童的墓地

利用老地图和雷达科技,寻找原住民儿童的墓地

Scott McFettridge, 美联社 2022-11-28
百年前的美洲原住民学校隐藏了一段黑暗的历史。

在美国内布拉斯加州中部,有80多名美洲土著儿童的遗体被埋葬在原热那亚印第安工业学校(Genoa Indian Industrial School)的地下。

这座学校位于热那亚的一个小型社区,占地超过640英亩(约2.59平方千米)。该学校在1931年关闭,这个曾经热闹的校园留给人们的记忆随着时间消散,数十年后,这些学生的墓地位置已经变成了谜。

得益于研究人员的努力,这个谜题可能很快得以解决。研究团队利用一个多世纪前的文件和地图,使用经过专门训练的嗅探犬,并利用透地雷达对地面进行探测,以查找这些墓地。

内布拉斯加州印第安事务委员会(Nebraska Commission on Indian Affairs)的执行主任朱迪·盖亚什基博斯说:“我认为,这些儿童没有受到尊重。他们都是被遗弃的孩子,无人过问。”她的母亲在20世纪20年代末期曾经就读于这所学校。“他们被隐藏、埋葬在地下,是时候驱散黑暗了。如果找不到他们的遗体,我们就无法告慰这些孩子们。”

在这个墓地搜索项目的同时,美国联邦政府正在对全国400多所美洲原住民寄宿学校系统进行全面检查。这些学校和其他私人资助的机构旨在强制将儿童与他们的家人分离,切断他们的民族传承,令土著人融入白人文化。

美国内政部(U.S. Interior Department)在去年春天发布了一份报告,详细介绍了寄宿学校项目,并提到有500多人死亡。内政部的部长德布·哈兰德是新墨西哥州拉古纳普韦布洛部落(Laguna Pueblo)的成员,也是第一位美洲原住民内政部部长(Native American Cabinet secretary)。预计在第二份内政部报告中,这个数字会大幅增加。该报告探索了寄宿学校的儿童死亡情况,并分析了强制将儿童迁入寄宿学校对原住民社区的伤害。

联邦调查并不是热那亚项目的原因,但增加了开展这项工作的紧迫性。

如果最终找到热那亚的墓地,就将由美洲原住民部落的代表决定是否纪念逝者,或者考虑挖掘遗体,但对于多年来一直在努力了解内布拉斯加学校的人们来说,找到这些墓地是一项成就。

热那亚印第安工业学校创建于1884年,在最高峰期曾经有近600名学生。在该学校存在的数十年间,超过4,300名儿童曾经在这里生活,使其成为美国规模最大的美洲原住民学校之一。学生在学校接受基本学术教育,大量时间用来学习实践技能,例如男生学习制作马缰绳,女生学习缝纫,这些技能在工业化转型期间对美国的价值很有限。

盖亚什基博斯表示,孩子们每天都精疲力尽,要早上4点起床做杂务,随后学习几个小时,剩余时间都要在厨房、作坊或者田地里劳作。学校纪律严苛,违反规定的孩子们会遭到殴打。

盖亚什基博斯称:“我们知道,孩子们绝对生活在恐惧当中。他们得不到母亲或者祖母的拥抱。没有歌声。一切对他们来说都是如此陌生。”

来自40多个部落的儿童被送到这个学校,有些儿童甚至来自遥远的爱达荷州和缅因州。孩子们被禁止说民族语言,头发被剪掉,并且被要求穿制服。长发对许多美洲原住民具有重要的文化意义,因此剪头发是一种创伤性经历。

俄克拉何马大学(University of Oklahoma)专注于美洲原住民研究的副教授法里纳·金指出,这所学校将孩子们从数百英里甚至数千英里之外的家中带到这里“强行监禁”,一方面是毁灭美洲原住民文化,另一方面是帮助窃取原住民的土地。

金是纳瓦霍族保留地(Navajo Nation)的成员,她的父亲曾经就读于寄宿学校。她表示:“显而易见,寄宿学校的目的是切断孩子与他们的族人、家乡和文化的联系。他们希望尽可能疏远孩子们与族人的关系。”

在热那亚,这意味着要乘坐一列火车来到校园。学校位于奥马哈西部约90英里(约145千米)处。

学校关闭之后,大多数大型建筑被拆除,土地被出售用于其他用途。一栋两层楼的砖墙结构工坊被改造成博物馆,还有一座高耸的烟囱被保留了下来,但体育馆、多层教学楼和宿舍已经消失,很难想象这个小社区曾经有一座巨大的校园。

公墓也几乎被人们遗忘,幸亏30年来一直有人在查找文件和社区周边的土地,寻找埋葬地点。六年前,热那亚印第安学校数字协调项目(Genoa Indian School Digital Reconciliation Project)推动了这项工作的开展。该项目的顾问有部落成员,他们的祖辈曾经就读于这所学校,还有来自内布拉斯加大学林肯分校(University of Nebraska-Lincoln)的人员。

研究人员根据剪报、主管的记录、一名描述公墓的学生信件和其他文件,确定至少有86名学生死于这所学校。目前尚不确定是否因为封闭的生活环境造成了死亡,但记录显示,学生最常见的死因是肺结核、伤寒和麻疹等疾病。还有至少一例意外中枪造成的死亡,以及因为颈部受伤而造成的死亡。

研究人员确定了49位死亡儿童的身份,但仍然无法确定37名学生的姓名。有许多孩子的遗体据信被送还给家人。

虽然研究人员可以说明死因,但他们找不到孩子们遗体的埋葬地。

内布拉斯加州的考古学家戴维·威廉姆斯表示,2021年加拿大宣布在寄宿学校发现了原住民儿童墓群后,热那亚越来越有意引入更多的专业人员。

威廉姆斯指出:“我们从当地居民那里获悉附近有坟墓,知道有热那亚学校公墓,但随着时间推移,公墓的准确地点已经不得而知。我们听说公墓位于多个不同位置,但到目前为止均未成功。”

当地居民、以及甚至曾经就读于该学校的学生提供了各种说法,但最终还是通过研究地图和航拍照片锁定了多个选项。最初使用透地雷达寻找遗体的努力并不成功。去年夏季,一位来自艾奥瓦州的男子自愿带着经过训练的嗅探犬来到现场。这些嗅探犬能够嗅探出遗体腐败产生的轻微气味。

两条嗅探犬分别示意在铁轨之间的一块狭窄土地上、一块玉米地和寄宿学校关闭后不久挖掘的一条运河中发现了遗体。10月末和11月初,美国国家公园管理局(National Park Service)下属的团队曾经两次前往当地,利用各种透地雷达探测地下的情况。

对于内布拉斯加州庞卡部落(Ponca Tribe)的成员盖亚什基博斯而言,回想起寄宿学校的历史和搜寻公墓地点的过程,令她感到非常悲伤。但她表示,找到公墓是告慰死去的孩子们和承认他们不得不承受的悲惨遭遇的关键一步。

她说:“为了治愈伤痛,我们需要找到答案,结束痛苦的过去。我们需要知道,这些孩子们到底被埋葬在什么地方?”(财富中文网)

译者:刘进龙

审校:汪皓

在美国内布拉斯加州中部,有80多名美洲土著儿童的遗体被埋葬在原热那亚印第安工业学校(Genoa Indian Industrial School)的地下。

这座学校位于热那亚的一个小型社区,占地超过640英亩(约2.59平方千米)。该学校在1931年关闭,这个曾经热闹的校园留给人们的记忆随着时间消散,数十年后,这些学生的墓地位置已经变成了谜。

得益于研究人员的努力,这个谜题可能很快得以解决。研究团队利用一个多世纪前的文件和地图,使用经过专门训练的嗅探犬,并利用透地雷达对地面进行探测,以查找这些墓地。

内布拉斯加州印第安事务委员会(Nebraska Commission on Indian Affairs)的执行主任朱迪·盖亚什基博斯说:“我认为,这些儿童没有受到尊重。他们都是被遗弃的孩子,无人过问。”她的母亲在20世纪20年代末期曾经就读于这所学校。“他们被隐藏、埋葬在地下,是时候驱散黑暗了。如果找不到他们的遗体,我们就无法告慰这些孩子们。”

在这个墓地搜索项目的同时,美国联邦政府正在对全国400多所美洲原住民寄宿学校系统进行全面检查。这些学校和其他私人资助的机构旨在强制将儿童与他们的家人分离,切断他们的民族传承,令土著人融入白人文化。

美国内政部(U.S. Interior Department)在去年春天发布了一份报告,详细介绍了寄宿学校项目,并提到有500多人死亡。内政部的部长德布·哈兰德是新墨西哥州拉古纳普韦布洛部落(Laguna Pueblo)的成员,也是第一位美洲原住民内政部部长(Native American Cabinet secretary)。预计在第二份内政部报告中,这个数字会大幅增加。该报告探索了寄宿学校的儿童死亡情况,并分析了强制将儿童迁入寄宿学校对原住民社区的伤害。

联邦调查并不是热那亚项目的原因,但增加了开展这项工作的紧迫性。

如果最终找到热那亚的墓地,就将由美洲原住民部落的代表决定是否纪念逝者,或者考虑挖掘遗体,但对于多年来一直在努力了解内布拉斯加学校的人们来说,找到这些墓地是一项成就。

热那亚印第安工业学校创建于1884年,在最高峰期曾经有近600名学生。在该学校存在的数十年间,超过4,300名儿童曾经在这里生活,使其成为美国规模最大的美洲原住民学校之一。学生在学校接受基本学术教育,大量时间用来学习实践技能,例如男生学习制作马缰绳,女生学习缝纫,这些技能在工业化转型期间对美国的价值很有限。

盖亚什基博斯表示,孩子们每天都精疲力尽,要早上4点起床做杂务,随后学习几个小时,剩余时间都要在厨房、作坊或者田地里劳作。学校纪律严苛,违反规定的孩子们会遭到殴打。

盖亚什基博斯称:“我们知道,孩子们绝对生活在恐惧当中。他们得不到母亲或者祖母的拥抱。没有歌声。一切对他们来说都是如此陌生。”

来自40多个部落的儿童被送到这个学校,有些儿童甚至来自遥远的爱达荷州和缅因州。孩子们被禁止说民族语言,头发被剪掉,并且被要求穿制服。长发对许多美洲原住民具有重要的文化意义,因此剪头发是一种创伤性经历。

俄克拉何马大学(University of Oklahoma)专注于美洲原住民研究的副教授法里纳·金指出,这所学校将孩子们从数百英里甚至数千英里之外的家中带到这里“强行监禁”,一方面是毁灭美洲原住民文化,另一方面是帮助窃取原住民的土地。

金是纳瓦霍族保留地(Navajo Nation)的成员,她的父亲曾经就读于寄宿学校。她表示:“显而易见,寄宿学校的目的是切断孩子与他们的族人、家乡和文化的联系。他们希望尽可能疏远孩子们与族人的关系。”

在热那亚,这意味着要乘坐一列火车来到校园。学校位于奥马哈西部约90英里(约145千米)处。

学校关闭之后,大多数大型建筑被拆除,土地被出售用于其他用途。一栋两层楼的砖墙结构工坊被改造成博物馆,还有一座高耸的烟囱被保留了下来,但体育馆、多层教学楼和宿舍已经消失,很难想象这个小社区曾经有一座巨大的校园。

公墓也几乎被人们遗忘,幸亏30年来一直有人在查找文件和社区周边的土地,寻找埋葬地点。六年前,热那亚印第安学校数字协调项目(Genoa Indian School Digital Reconciliation Project)推动了这项工作的开展。该项目的顾问有部落成员,他们的祖辈曾经就读于这所学校,还有来自内布拉斯加大学林肯分校(University of Nebraska-Lincoln)的人员。

研究人员根据剪报、主管的记录、一名描述公墓的学生信件和其他文件,确定至少有86名学生死于这所学校。目前尚不确定是否因为封闭的生活环境造成了死亡,但记录显示,学生最常见的死因是肺结核、伤寒和麻疹等疾病。还有至少一例意外中枪造成的死亡,以及因为颈部受伤而造成的死亡。

研究人员确定了49位死亡儿童的身份,但仍然无法确定37名学生的姓名。有许多孩子的遗体据信被送还给家人。

虽然研究人员可以说明死因,但他们找不到孩子们遗体的埋葬地。

内布拉斯加州的考古学家戴维·威廉姆斯表示,2021年加拿大宣布在寄宿学校发现了原住民儿童墓群后,热那亚越来越有意引入更多的专业人员。

威廉姆斯指出:“我们从当地居民那里获悉附近有坟墓,知道有热那亚学校公墓,但随着时间推移,公墓的准确地点已经不得而知。我们听说公墓位于多个不同位置,但到目前为止均未成功。”

当地居民、以及甚至曾经就读于该学校的学生提供了各种说法,但最终还是通过研究地图和航拍照片锁定了多个选项。最初使用透地雷达寻找遗体的努力并不成功。去年夏季,一位来自艾奥瓦州的男子自愿带着经过训练的嗅探犬来到现场。这些嗅探犬能够嗅探出遗体腐败产生的轻微气味。

两条嗅探犬分别示意在铁轨之间的一块狭窄土地上、一块玉米地和寄宿学校关闭后不久挖掘的一条运河中发现了遗体。10月末和11月初,美国国家公园管理局(National Park Service)下属的团队曾经两次前往当地,利用各种透地雷达探测地下的情况。

对于内布拉斯加州庞卡部落(Ponca Tribe)的成员盖亚什基博斯而言,回想起寄宿学校的历史和搜寻公墓地点的过程,令她感到非常悲伤。但她表示,找到公墓是告慰死去的孩子们和承认他们不得不承受的悲惨遭遇的关键一步。

她说:“为了治愈伤痛,我们需要找到答案,结束痛苦的过去。我们需要知道,这些孩子们到底被埋葬在什么地方?”(财富中文网)

译者:刘进龙

审校:汪皓

The bodies of more than 80 Native American children are buried at the former Genoa Indian Industrial School in central Nebraska.

But for decades, the location of the student cemetery has been a mystery, lost over time after the school closed in 1931 and memories faded of the once-busy campus that sprawled over 640 acres in the tiny community of Genoa.

That mystery may soon be solved thanks to efforts by researchers who pored over century-old documents and maps, examined land with specially trained dogs and made use of ground-penetrating radar in search of the lost graves.

“These children, in my opinion, were disrespected, and they were throwaway children that no one talked about,” said Judi gaiashkibos, the executive director of the Nebraska Commission on Indian Affairs whose mother attended the school in the late 1920s. “They were hidden, buried under the ground, and it’s time to take the darkness away. Until we do that, we have not honored those children.”

The search for the graves comes as the federal government is in the midst of a first-ever comprehensive examination of the national system of more than 400 Native American boarding schools. The schools and additional privately funded institutions were part of an attempt to integrate Indigenous people into the white culture by separating children forcibly or by coercion from their families and cutting them off from their heritage.

The U.S. Interior Department, led by Secretary Deb Haaland, a member of Laguna Pueblo in New Mexico and the first Native American Cabinet secretary, released a report last spring that detailed the boarding school program and noted more than 500 deaths. That number is expected to increase significantly in a second Interior Department report, which will explore boarding school deaths and how the forced removal of children to the schools damaged Indigenous communities.

The federal investigation didn’t prompt the work in Genoa but it has added new urgency to the effort.

If the Genoa graves are found, decisions about whether to commemorate them or consider disinterring the remains will be left to representatives of Native American tribes, but simply finding the cemetery will be an accomplishment for individuals who for years have sought to gain a greater understanding of the Nebraska school.

The Genoa Indian Industrial School opened in 1884 and at its height was home to nearly 600 students. In the decades it was open, more than 4,300 children lived there, making it one of the largest Native American schools in the country. The students were given a basic academic education and spent much of their time learning hands-on skills such as horse bridle-making for boys and sewing for girls that had limited value for a country in the midst of an industrial transformation.

The children typically spent long, exhausting days, rising as early as 4 a.m. for chores, followed by several hours of school before working the rest of the day in kitchens, workshops or out in the fields, said gaiashkibos. Discipline could be harsh, with even young children facing beatings for breaking rules.

“Absolutely, we know the children were living in fear,” gaiashkibos said. “There were no hugs from mom or grandma. There were no songs sung. Everything was foreign to them.”

Children from over 40 tribes were brought from as far away as Idaho and Maine to the school. The were forbidden from speaking their Native languages, their hair was cut — a traumatic experience given the cultural significance for many Native Americans of long hair — and they were required to wear uniforms.

This “forced incarceration” of children at a school hundreds an even thousands of miles away from their homes had a two-fold goal of crushing Native American cultures and aiding in the stealing of Native land, said Farina King, an associate professor at the University of Oklahoma who focuses on Native American studies.

“More than anything there was a clear agenda to cut the ties between their people, their homeland, their culture,” said King, a member of the Navajo Nation whose father attended one of the boarding schools. “They wanted to get them away as far as they could.”

At Genoa, that typically meant taking a train that would stop at the school grounds, about 90 miles (145 kilometers) west of Omaha.

After the school closed, most of the larger buildings were demolished and the land sold for other uses. A two-story brick workshop that has been turned into a museum remains, as does a smokestack that towers over the community, but the gymnasium, multi-story classroom buildings and dormitories are long gone and it’s hard to imagine a large school once existed in the small community.

The cemetery would have been forgotten too, if not for residents who for 30 years had been searching documents and the land around their community for the burial site. Their effort was given a boost about six years ago by the Genoa Indian School Digital Reconciliation Project, which included advisers from some of the tribes whose ancestors attended the school and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

Based off newspaper clippings, superintendent’s records, one student’s letter that described a cemetery and other documents, they determined at least 86 students died at the school. It’s unclear whether close living conditions contributed to the deaths, but records indicate students most commonly died of diseases such as tuberculosis, typhoid and measles. There also was at least one death by accidental shooting and another due to a neck injury.

Researchers identified 49 of the children who died but have not been able to find names for 37 students. It’s believed the bodies of a few children were returned to their families.

But while the researchers accounted for the deaths, they couldn’t find where the children were buried.

Interest in bringing more professionals to help in Genoa grew after Canada announced in 2021 the discovery of mass graves of Indigenous children at residential schools, said Dave Williams, Nebraska’s state archeologist.

“We’ve heard from residents knowing there were burials nearby, knowing this was the Genoa school cemetery, but that precise location has been lost to time,” Williams said. “We’ve heard it’s in a few different locations but so far that hasn’t panned out.”

There were plenty of theories from residents and even former students, but it took study of maps and aerial photos to narrow down a few options. An initial effort to find remains using ground-penetrating radar wasn’t successful, but last summer an Iowa man volunteered to come to the site with dogs that are trained to detect the faint odor of decaying remains.

Two dogs separately signaled they smelled remains on a narrow piece of land sandwiched between railroad tracks, a cornfield and a canal that was dug soon after the boarding school closed. In late October and early November, a team affiliated with the National Park Service made two trips to the site and used different kinds of ground-penetrating radar in hopes of detecting what was beneath the soil.

To gaiashkibos, a member of the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska, thinking of the boarding school and searching for the cemetery brings an overwhelming sense of sadness. But she said finding the cemetery is an essential step in honoring the children and recognizing what they had to endure.

“To heal, we have to have answers and bring closure,” she said. “We need to know, where are those children?”

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