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CEO被罢免,员工暴动,微软介入,OpenAI到底发生了什么?

CEO被罢免,员工暴动,微软介入,OpenAI到底发生了什么?

Paolo Confino 2023-11-22
由于萨姆·奥尔特曼加快推动OpenAI人工智能产品商业化,苏茨克维尔及其盟友与奥尔特曼之间的不合已经持续了一年之久。

OpenAI联合创始人萨姆·奥尔特曼。图片来源:JUSTIN SULLIVAN—GETTY IMAGES

引领了人工智能繁荣和ChatGPT的开发者OpenAI,经历了非常混乱的一个周末。

该公司在上周末换了三位首席执行官,而其知名领导人、联合创始人和前首席执行官萨姆·奥尔特曼,已经离开公司,将加入微软(Microsoft),培养一个强大的竞争对手。但这也是一个未知数,因为有迹象表明,奥尔特曼仍然有希望重回OpenAI。

奥尔特曼的离职会影响OpenAI的860亿美元的估值,这会伤害投资者、高管和持股员工,因为他们目前正在准备签署一份财务协议,该协议将允许他们出售部分高估值的股份。

而且上周末发生的事件凸显出一场更大规模的辩论。这场辩论从今年年初人工智能突然爆红的时候开始,辩论的焦点是如何以安全和合乎道德的方式开发一项可能具有变革意义的技术。批评者担心,在开发一种威胁人类生存的技术时,硅谷“快速行动、打破常规”的作风,可能会产生可怕的后果。

简单总结:OpenAI在上周末到底发生了什么?

11月17日下午,OpenAI董事会撤销了奥尔特曼的职务,并在一篇博客文章里称他在与董事会的沟通中“一直不够坦率”,这在科技界引发了热烈的猜测。董事会并未详细透露奥尔特曼在哪些方面不够坦率(而且至今依旧未做出说明)。公司的首席技术官米拉·穆拉蒂被任命为临时首席执行官。

有传闻称,奥尔特曼与另外一位联合创始人伊利亚·苏茨克维尔的关系日益紧张。苏茨克维尔是OpenAI董事会成员。公司总裁、联合创始人格雷格·布罗克曼却被夹在中间。奥尔特曼被驱逐后,布罗克曼不再担任董事会主席,但并未被公司解雇。几个小时后,布罗克曼也辞去了高管职务,选择与奥尔特曼站在一起。

11月18日,有媒体爆料称穆拉蒂正在进行谈判,计划重新聘用奥尔特曼和布罗克曼担任其他职务。奥尔特曼似乎愿意考虑这种可能性,他甚至发布了一张自己配戴访客徽章在OpenAI办公室里的照片。奥尔特曼在X上发文称:“这是我第一次也是最后一次配戴这个徽章。”在公司试图让奥尔特曼回归之前,公司发生了大规模员工抗议,奥尔特曼的盟友,包括微软的高管,均要求奥尔特曼回归。

OpenAI董事会拒绝让步,而是做出了一个惊人的举动,聘请了一位替代者:Twitch的创始人埃米特·希尔。希尔在2014年以约10亿美元的价格,把他的公司卖给了亚马逊(Amazon)。

显然,OpenAI不会允许奥尔特曼重回公司。11月20日上午早些时候,微软的首席执行官萨蒂亚·纳德拉突然聘请奥尔特曼和布罗克曼,负责该科技巨头内部新成立的研究部门。

谁是萨姆·奥尔特曼?

奥尔特曼是硅谷的名人,也是人工智能领域里知名度最高的人。有人将他被罢免,与苹果公司(Apple)错误地解雇年轻的史蒂夫·乔布斯这一著名事件相提并论。

奥尔特曼全职加入OpenAI之前,曾经在硅谷最著名的创业孵化机构Y Combinator担任总裁。奥尔特曼的初创公司Loopt支持用户彼此进行位置共享,这是最早从Y Combinator孵化的初创公司之一。

之后他变成了一位富有且在科技界备受喜爱的人物。虽然奥尔特曼投资了数十家公司,但众所周知,他在OpenAI不持有任何股份。

董事会与奥尔特曼因为什么产生了分歧?

目前就连科技界内部人士也不得而知。虽然没有确切答案,但有几种可能性。因为奥尔特曼是一位连续创业者,因此董事会可能对他目前或计划的创业项目感到不满,这可能给人们产生一种他与公司存在利益冲突的印象。

据彭博社(Bloomberg)报道,奥尔特曼计划成立一家新芯片公司,与在人工智能领域里占支配地位的英伟达(Nvidia)竞争,并且一直在中东寻找投资者。人工智能的崛起带来了算力需求的繁荣。

另外一种可能性是,奥尔特曼和布罗克曼与董事会的理念不合。有些与利他主义运动(名誉扫地的加密货币高管萨姆·班克曼-弗里德也是这种运动的支持者)存在关联的董事会成员认为,人工智能给人类带来了严重威胁。这种思想学派的支持者对于仅仅为了技术发展而推动人工智能感到警惕,而奥尔特曼阵营则希望尽可能推动OpenAI的研究。董事会可能认为奥尔特曼和他的盟友,过分热衷于推动人工智能技术发展,却没有充分考虑到它可能带来的危险。

为什么事情会突然发生?

事实上,这件事情的发生并不突然。在上周末的戏剧性变化发生之前,由于奥尔特曼加快推动OpenAI人工智能产品商业化,苏茨克维尔及其盟友与奥尔特曼之间的不合已经持续了一年之久。

在OpenAI本月早些时候的首个开发者日上,奥尔特曼发布的一项工具,支持其他开发者使用公司的模型开发自己的人工智能工具。据美国有线电视新闻网(CNN)报道,包括苏茨克维尔在内的多位公司高管,不认同这种做法。

微软在此事中扮演什么角色?

微软是OpenAI最大的金主,为其提供了运行强大模型所需要的算力。微软在该公司已经投资了总计130亿美元,因此它在这个过程中具有异常强大的影响力。据Axios爆料,在OpenAI公开宣布解雇奥尔特曼前一分钟,微软高管,包括纳德拉,就已经获悉了这个决定。

最初,纳德拉表示即便奥尔特曼不再管理公司,微软也会继续与OpenAI的合作伙伴关系。但11月18日,微软和其他投资者开始推动奥尔特曼回归OpenAI,并最终雇佣了他和布罗克曼。

OpenAI的员工如何看待此事?

用一个词来形容他们的反应就是:暴动。11月20日上午,在OpenAI的700名员工里,有超过500人签署联名信,表示如果董事会不辞职,他们就将辞职,并与奥尔特曼一起加入微软。

奥尔特曼在OpenAI担任首席执行官期间很受欢迎,员工对他离职的消息感到震惊。他们是在公司对外公开宣布之后,才知道了奥尔特曼被罢免的消息。

OpenAI即将签署一份“收购要约”,这份邀约允许员工把未来的利润分成权利出售给其他投资者。奥尔特曼的离职会影响这份协议的签署,而且可能让员工失去一次获得巨大收益的机会。

联名信直言不讳地批评董事会对奥尔特曼和布罗克曼离职的处理方式。信中写道:“你们的行为表明,你们没有监管OpenAI的能力。”穆拉蒂最早签字,而在奥尔特曼离职之前与其存在分歧的董事会成员苏茨克维尔也签署了联名信。

11月20日上午,苏茨克维尔在X上写道,他对参与了董事会罢免奥尔特曼的决定感到“深深的后悔”,引发了新一轮猜测。

接下来会发生什么?

微软的计划很清楚:它将在奥尔特曼领导的新研究团队投入资金、人才和云算力等资源。奥尔特曼会继续他在OpenAI的工作,开发日益成熟的大语言模型,并为它们设计商业应用,他的下属可能是从OpenAI转投微软的前同事。

OpenAI的情况更加混乱,因为它要面对员工大规模辞职或董事会彻底重组或者两种情况同时出现的威胁。公司还面临员工集体跳槽加入微软的可能性。与此同时,希尔宣布计划对奥尔特曼被解雇的情况展开调查。

OpenAI还要平息投资者的不满。OpenAI的关键人物离职,加入同样是科技业巨头的竞争对手,这令投资者感到不安。如果OpenAI在与微软的人工智能竞赛中最终落败,投资者的投资可能就会打水漂。(当然,微软也是投资者之一。)

对奥尔特曼而言,他摆脱了OpenAI作为一家非营利性公司的营利性子公司这种非同寻常的公司结构的束缚,就可以尝试发展人工智能的各种途径。但有人怀疑,长期在初创公司担任高管的奥尔特曼,是否会觉得微软这种庞然大物的僵化体制,令他感到束缚。此外,有消息人士对The Verge表示,奥尔特曼可能仍旧倾向于重回OpenAI。

这对人工智能的未来意味着什么?

无论发生了多少公司内部的阴谋,上周末的事件都表明了人工智能研究的高风险后果。

这并不是我们通常以为的科技公司人事变动:正如作家尤瓦尔·诺瓦·赫拉利所写的那样,与约会、叫车服务或送餐应用程序不同,人工智能的未来与人类的未来息息相关。赫拉利曾经警告:“我们所谈论的可能是人类历史的终结,是人类占主宰地位的时代走向终结。”(财富中文网)

译者:刘进龙

审校:汪皓

引领了人工智能繁荣和ChatGPT的开发者OpenAI,经历了非常混乱的一个周末。

该公司在上周末换了三位首席执行官,而其知名领导人、联合创始人和前首席执行官萨姆·奥尔特曼,已经离开公司,将加入微软(Microsoft),培养一个强大的竞争对手。但这也是一个未知数,因为有迹象表明,奥尔特曼仍然有希望重回OpenAI。

奥尔特曼的离职会影响OpenAI的860亿美元的估值,这会伤害投资者、高管和持股员工,因为他们目前正在准备签署一份财务协议,该协议将允许他们出售部分高估值的股份。

而且上周末发生的事件凸显出一场更大规模的辩论。这场辩论从今年年初人工智能突然爆红的时候开始,辩论的焦点是如何以安全和合乎道德的方式开发一项可能具有变革意义的技术。批评者担心,在开发一种威胁人类生存的技术时,硅谷“快速行动、打破常规”的作风,可能会产生可怕的后果。

简单总结:OpenAI在上周末到底发生了什么?

11月17日下午,OpenAI董事会撤销了奥尔特曼的职务,并在一篇博客文章里称他在与董事会的沟通中“一直不够坦率”,这在科技界引发了热烈的猜测。董事会并未详细透露奥尔特曼在哪些方面不够坦率(而且至今依旧未做出说明)。公司的首席技术官米拉·穆拉蒂被任命为临时首席执行官。

有传闻称,奥尔特曼与另外一位联合创始人伊利亚·苏茨克维尔的关系日益紧张。苏茨克维尔是OpenAI董事会成员。公司总裁、联合创始人格雷格·布罗克曼却被夹在中间。奥尔特曼被驱逐后,布罗克曼不再担任董事会主席,但并未被公司解雇。几个小时后,布罗克曼也辞去了高管职务,选择与奥尔特曼站在一起。

11月18日,有媒体爆料称穆拉蒂正在进行谈判,计划重新聘用奥尔特曼和布罗克曼担任其他职务。奥尔特曼似乎愿意考虑这种可能性,他甚至发布了一张自己配戴访客徽章在OpenAI办公室里的照片。奥尔特曼在X上发文称:“这是我第一次也是最后一次配戴这个徽章。”在公司试图让奥尔特曼回归之前,公司发生了大规模员工抗议,奥尔特曼的盟友,包括微软的高管,均要求奥尔特曼回归。

OpenAI董事会拒绝让步,而是做出了一个惊人的举动,聘请了一位替代者:Twitch的创始人埃米特·希尔。希尔在2014年以约10亿美元的价格,把他的公司卖给了亚马逊(Amazon)。

显然,OpenAI不会允许奥尔特曼重回公司。11月20日上午早些时候,微软的首席执行官萨蒂亚·纳德拉突然聘请奥尔特曼和布罗克曼,负责该科技巨头内部新成立的研究部门。

谁是萨姆·奥尔特曼?

奥尔特曼是硅谷的名人,也是人工智能领域里知名度最高的人。有人将他被罢免,与苹果公司(Apple)错误地解雇年轻的史蒂夫·乔布斯这一著名事件相提并论。

奥尔特曼全职加入OpenAI之前,曾经在硅谷最著名的创业孵化机构Y Combinator担任总裁。奥尔特曼的初创公司Loopt支持用户彼此进行位置共享,这是最早从Y Combinator孵化的初创公司之一。

之后他变成了一位富有且在科技界备受喜爱的人物。虽然奥尔特曼投资了数十家公司,但众所周知,他在OpenAI不持有任何股份。

董事会与奥尔特曼因为什么产生了分歧?

目前就连科技界内部人士也不得而知。虽然没有确切答案,但有几种可能性。因为奥尔特曼是一位连续创业者,因此董事会可能对他目前或计划的创业项目感到不满,这可能给人们产生一种他与公司存在利益冲突的印象。

据彭博社(Bloomberg)报道,奥尔特曼计划成立一家新芯片公司,与在人工智能领域里占支配地位的英伟达(Nvidia)竞争,并且一直在中东寻找投资者。人工智能的崛起带来了算力需求的繁荣。

另外一种可能性是,奥尔特曼和布罗克曼与董事会的理念不合。有些与利他主义运动(名誉扫地的加密货币高管萨姆·班克曼-弗里德也是这种运动的支持者)存在关联的董事会成员认为,人工智能给人类带来了严重威胁。这种思想学派的支持者对于仅仅为了技术发展而推动人工智能感到警惕,而奥尔特曼阵营则希望尽可能推动OpenAI的研究。董事会可能认为奥尔特曼和他的盟友,过分热衷于推动人工智能技术发展,却没有充分考虑到它可能带来的危险。

为什么事情会突然发生?

事实上,这件事情的发生并不突然。在上周末的戏剧性变化发生之前,由于奥尔特曼加快推动OpenAI人工智能产品商业化,苏茨克维尔及其盟友与奥尔特曼之间的不合已经持续了一年之久。

在OpenAI本月早些时候的首个开发者日上,奥尔特曼发布的一项工具,支持其他开发者使用公司的模型开发自己的人工智能工具。据美国有线电视新闻网(CNN)报道,包括苏茨克维尔在内的多位公司高管,不认同这种做法。

微软在此事中扮演什么角色?

微软是OpenAI最大的金主,为其提供了运行强大模型所需要的算力。微软在该公司已经投资了总计130亿美元,因此它在这个过程中具有异常强大的影响力。据Axios爆料,在OpenAI公开宣布解雇奥尔特曼前一分钟,微软高管,包括纳德拉,就已经获悉了这个决定。

最初,纳德拉表示即便奥尔特曼不再管理公司,微软也会继续与OpenAI的合作伙伴关系。但11月18日,微软和其他投资者开始推动奥尔特曼回归OpenAI,并最终雇佣了他和布罗克曼。

OpenAI的员工如何看待此事?

用一个词来形容他们的反应就是:暴动。11月20日上午,在OpenAI的700名员工里,有超过500人签署联名信,表示如果董事会不辞职,他们就将辞职,并与奥尔特曼一起加入微软。

奥尔特曼在OpenAI担任首席执行官期间很受欢迎,员工对他离职的消息感到震惊。他们是在公司对外公开宣布之后,才知道了奥尔特曼被罢免的消息。

OpenAI即将签署一份“收购要约”,这份邀约允许员工把未来的利润分成权利出售给其他投资者。奥尔特曼的离职会影响这份协议的签署,而且可能让员工失去一次获得巨大收益的机会。

联名信直言不讳地批评董事会对奥尔特曼和布罗克曼离职的处理方式。信中写道:“你们的行为表明,你们没有监管OpenAI的能力。”穆拉蒂最早签字,而在奥尔特曼离职之前与其存在分歧的董事会成员苏茨克维尔也签署了联名信。

11月20日上午,苏茨克维尔在X上写道,他对参与了董事会罢免奥尔特曼的决定感到“深深的后悔”,引发了新一轮猜测。

接下来会发生什么?

微软的计划很清楚:它将在奥尔特曼领导的新研究团队投入资金、人才和云算力等资源。奥尔特曼会继续他在OpenAI的工作,开发日益成熟的大语言模型,并为它们设计商业应用,他的下属可能是从OpenAI转投微软的前同事。

OpenAI的情况更加混乱,因为它要面对员工大规模辞职或董事会彻底重组或者两种情况同时出现的威胁。公司还面临员工集体跳槽加入微软的可能性。与此同时,希尔宣布计划对奥尔特曼被解雇的情况展开调查。

OpenAI还要平息投资者的不满。OpenAI的关键人物离职,加入同样是科技业巨头的竞争对手,这令投资者感到不安。如果OpenAI在与微软的人工智能竞赛中最终落败,投资者的投资可能就会打水漂。(当然,微软也是投资者之一。)

对奥尔特曼而言,他摆脱了OpenAI作为一家非营利性公司的营利性子公司这种非同寻常的公司结构的束缚,就可以尝试发展人工智能的各种途径。但有人怀疑,长期在初创公司担任高管的奥尔特曼,是否会觉得微软这种庞然大物的僵化体制,令他感到束缚。此外,有消息人士对The Verge表示,奥尔特曼可能仍旧倾向于重回OpenAI。

这对人工智能的未来意味着什么?

无论发生了多少公司内部的阴谋,上周末的事件都表明了人工智能研究的高风险后果。

这并不是我们通常以为的科技公司人事变动:正如作家尤瓦尔·诺瓦·赫拉利所写的那样,与约会、叫车服务或送餐应用程序不同,人工智能的未来与人类的未来息息相关。赫拉利曾经警告:“我们所谈论的可能是人类历史的终结,是人类占主宰地位的时代走向终结。”(财富中文网)

译者:刘进龙

审校:汪皓

OpenAI, the company leading the artificial intelligence boom and the maker of ChatGPT, had a rather tumultuous weekend.

The company has now had three CEOs in as many days, and its high-profile leader—cofounder and former CEO Sam Altman—has decamped to start a formidable rival embedded at Microsoft. Now even that seems in doubt, with some indications that Altman is still holding out hope for a return to OpenAI.

Altman’s departure puts OpenAI’s $86 billion valuation at risk, which would hurt investors, executives, and employees with a stake in the company, right as they were gearing up to enter a financial agreement that would have allowed them to sell portions of their highly valued shares.

And the events of last weekend underscore a larger debate that’s been going on since AI burst into the zeitgeist at the beginning of the year over how to develop a potentially transformational technology safely and ethically. Critics are wary that Silicon Valley’s “move fast and break things” ethos could have drastic consequences when it comes to a technology that some see as an existential threat to humans.

Give me the TL;DR: What happened at OpenAI last weekend?

On November 17 afternoon, OpenAI’s board removed Altman from his position, setting off feverish speculation in the tech world with a blog post saying that he hadn’t been “consistently candid in his communications.” The board didn’t elaborate on what he had not been candid about (and still hasn’t). The company’s CTO, Mira Murati, was appointed interim CEO.

There had been rumors of increasing tensions between Altman and his cofounder Ilya Sutskever, who had a seat on OpenAI’s board. Somewhat caught in the middle was company president, cofounder Greg Brockman, who was removed as board chair, although not fired from the company, when Altman was ousted. Within several hours, Brockman also resigned from his C-suite role in solidarity with Altman.

By November 18, it was reported that Murati was in talks to hire Altman and Brockman back at the company in different capacities. Altman seemed open to that possibility, even posting a picture of himself in the OpenAI office wearing a guest badge. “First and last time I wear one of these,” Altman wrote on X. The attempt to bring Altman back came after mass employee protests and Altman’s allies, including Microsoft executives, pushing for his return.

OpenAI’s board refused to relent, pulling a shock move and hiring a replacement for the replacement: Twitch founder Emmett Shear, who sold his company to Amazon for about $1 billion in 2014.

At this point, it became clear OpenAI wouldn’t allow Altman to return to the company. By early November 20 morning, Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella had swooped in to hire Altman and Brockman to lead a newly founded research arm within the tech giant.

Who is Sam Altman, anyhow?

Altman has become a major figure in Silicon Valley and by far the most recognizable face in AI. Some have compared his ouster to Apple’s famously misguided firing of a young Steve Jobs.

Prior to working full-time at OpenAI, Altman was the president of Y Combinator, the most renowned startup incubator in Silicon Valley. Altman’s own startup, Loopt, which lets users share their locations with one another, was a member of the first class of startups incubated at Y Combinator.

Since then, he has become a wealthy and well-liked figure in tech. He famously does not have any equity in OpenAI, though he has invested in dozens of companies.

What did the board and Altman disagree over?

That’s still unclear, even to tech insiders. While there hasn’t been any definitive answer, several possibilities have been raised. Given that Altman is a serial entrepreneur, it is possible the board chafed at some of his current or planned business ventures, which might give the impression of a possible conflict of interest.

Altman had been in the Middle East looking for backers to start a new chip company to rival Nvidia, the dominant chipmaker in AI, according to Bloomberg. The rise of AI has led to a boom in demand for computing power.

Another possibility is that philosophical disagreements between Altman and Brockman and the board came to a head. Some board members with ties to the effective altruism movement (which disgraced crypto executive Sam Bankman-Fried was also a proponent of) believe AI poses a grave threat to humanity. Subscribers to that school of thought are wary of advancing AI just for the sake of technological development, while those in Altman’s camp wanted to push OpenAI’s research as far along as it could go. The board may have considered Altman and his allies too gung-ho about pushing forward the technology without properly considering the potential dangers.

Why did this happen so suddenly?

Well, in truth it didn’t. This weekend’s drama followed a year’s worth of tensions and concerns from Sutskever and his allies over Altman’s increasingly rapid push to commercialize OpenAI’s artificial intelligence products.

At OpenAI’s first developer day earlier this month, Altman announced a tool that would let other developers use its models to make their own AI tools. Some executives at the company, including Sutskever, were uncomfortable with this idea, according to CNN.

What’s Microsoft’s role in all this?

Microsoft is OpenAI’s biggest financial backer and provider of the computing power needed to run its powerful models, having invested a total of $13 billion in the company, so it has an unusually large influence in the proceedings. Executives from Microsoft, including Nadella, learned of OpenAI’s decision to fire Altman just one minute before it was announced publicly, according to Axios.

At first, Nadella said Microsoft remained committed to its partnership with OpenAI even though Altman would no longer be helming the company. On November 18, however, Microsoft joined other investors in pushing for Altman to return to OpenAI—and eventually hired him and Brockman.

How do OpenAI’s employees feel about this?

In one word: mutinous. On November 20 morning, over 500 of OpenAI’s 700 employees signed a letter saying they would quit and join Altman at Microsoft if the board didn’t resign.

Altman was a popular CEO during his time at OpenAI, and employees were shocked by the news of his departure, which they only found out about when the announcement was made public outside the company.

OpenAI was about to sign a “tender offer” that would have let employees sell some of their future profit participation rights to other investors. Altman’s departure puts that agreement in jeopardy, and could cost those employees the chance of a spectacular payout.

The letter criticizing the board’s handling of Altman’s and Brockman’s removals did not mince words: “Your conduct has made it clear you did not have the competence to oversee OpenAI,” it reads. Murati was the first signatory, and Sutskever, the board member who disagreed with Altman in the lead-up to his firing, also signed.

On November 20 morning, Sutskever set off a fresh wave of speculation when he wrote on X that he “deeply regrets” participating in the board’s decision to remove Altman.

What could happen next?

For Microsoft the plan is relatively straightforward: It will funnel resources—money, personnel, and cloud-computing power—into the new research arm Altman will lead. Altman will continue the same work he was doing at OpenAI, building increasingly sophisticated large language models and ideating commercial uses for them—perhaps with a staff including defectors from OpenAI.

Things at OpenAI seem much more tumultuous, as the threat of either a mass employee resignation or a total overhaul of the board—or both—looms. The company also faces the possibility of mass defections to Microsoft. In the meantime, Shear announced plans to investigate the circumstances of Altman’s firing.

And it will have to contend with disgruntled investors upset that OpenAI’s key man has departed for a rival that also happens to be one of tech’s biggest firms. If OpenAI ends up losing its lead in the AI race to Microsoft, then its investors may watch the value of their investments be wiped out. (And of course, Microsoft is one of these investors.)

As for Altman, free from the shackles of OpenAI’s unusual corporate structure as a for-profit subsidiary of a nonprofit, he can pursue any and all paths to advance AI. Some have wondered, however, whether the longtime startup exec will find the rigidity of a corporate behemoth like Microsoft constricting. Meanwhile, sources told The Verge that Altman may still be angling for a return to OpenAI.

What does this mean for the future of AI?

Regardless of the various corporate machinations that occur, the weekend’s events illustrate the high-stakes consequences of artificial intelligence research.

This is not your standard tech company personnel drama: Unlike dating, ride sharing, or food delivery apps, AI’s future is tied to the future of our species, as the author Yuval Noah Harari has written. “Potentially we are talking about the end of human history,” Harari has warned, “the end of the period dominated by human beings.”

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